2>^::>>r : » Slx>5 D^:;>l> rx^ _^ -:':>C> z> >-^l) • 3> 5> 2S> 33^r- :^»:3> _ IIS »>a>i:>^ 3> 3 3 ^;>^^c>.-&>i> 2> . 3^i>::z> 3^>!^ :> 15^ : I>i> J>1> ~:S>Z >:) ^5> :^:c> z: ^cc-. M is .s O b o b o b o b p O b o b o b o b ^& Sg" + 1 + + 1 1 1 1 ^ S3 1^ P3 t_i o> Hi o r-~ ^A ON •^ 3 ° c8 •S r^ VO m a m oc OO o S b o a^ r^\ b V 'i- IN-\ '^ ^ •* > s§s f 1 oo ^ M M u^ oo « »^ I o oo CO ^O M o CN ON ON CN ^ 3 M M H ^ H •^ a-Sri v/> r^ o r^ OO 00 "i- r^ S « b ^ 5^S o r^ ^ ri o o ^ w M M + 1 + + 1 1 1 1 a S o n CO b oo o OO f^ ^ ON p- r^ *v% 1-^ m r^ ? w^ ^ 1 a's^- r^ oo O p Th ON r^ "N p. g 5 §" rA v b o >H b M 1 o 2 o o + 1 + 1 1 1 1 & g fl '^ oo r> oo r^ r^ r/N 'I- H g o b (S b r^ o ;^ r^ ».r\ oo S ^ 1^ ^ fA 'i- rf WN Ni- is2 M o '^ r» ^ e s l-( l-l g t-t Dail orizc oven the. V 00 oS rA ^ c> r^ w^ Id r~^ s 5- M " 1 ■^ S ■^ " IN = a'" -Ho i « i •^ ^ M k^ r^ a b b 1 b d M b b a 5 M a "i- + + 1 m + 1 1 + 1 ■3 ^ 9 •r\ ON t^ a ^ u^ vO a J^ 1 a r« t-t IH rg >rN d b ►1 r< OS W- <1 l-l So^ 1 5 a" CO 00 r*-\ M |v^ 1-^ IH "So 11 & 1 + 1 1 i 4- 1 1 i_- ^ r~- t-l vD „ o3 E ■^ SO ■j^ »J^ u> vr> u^ »i^ •r\ So .^ f^ 'd- \D k^ r*^ '*■ r^ *J% tH a b 1 b + t-t b i b 1 d b b + b 1 b + •§2 ^2 h^ r<^ M >J^ ^ •* d i-~ r< CN Cv C3 a »J^ ^D d 00 r~ t^ oo S o> o> ON Ov ^ a'Sri >, 2 t-I H r> •^ ^ o'-B fafe '^ i + 4- 1 + + + la °2 a ^M , a r^ Krt f^ CO SO CO 00 1 00 00 00 CO r^ t^ r^ " 2 ■ >> w • ■• • m eo H >» - 5 3 '3 (=5 5 § ( VI ) K K « >r o -j; CO > t- P3 00 W — < o < ^ = tn' .2 3 c3 to 03 V o bO C^ o o s r- C*-i Cow o oo •^ ':^ '^ •^ VO P -J 4 »-. o '^^ o O o o o d too c o O O o _fl o o o o i 3 "^ b b b b b b b b fal oS" + + 1 1 1 + + 1 i> i_ tT OO n c^ o >J^ ir\ j2 ^^ r» r^ 'i- O u^ w^ -^ = g 2 ^ ^ ^ A M N (N n S b b b b b b b b ill o oc oo VA o r'^ M p O o >^ oo r<-^ O r'\ ^ r^ r-^ o o 1J^ VO ^J^ ■^ ^ ^ '- *; . COM ^J^ CN O -* M oo bO o OJ 3 .i toS o M b b b o Li b M b fci^ + + + + + 1 + + i ^ e 1 Q%" c ^ m t-H r^ ^1- r"-v »r> f^ j 5 o (S o 'a^ b o O ^ O oo VO O M o wr, (S Ten loration. o + b + 1 b o 1 + b + b 1 M4 ri 00 M OO ra M ■+ rr\ \o w c3 o • • o • a oo OO o o ON u-1 ^^ u^ ^ rA rn ^ P «) i ^ <^^ vD O 't ^TN j •t; tog o M M r4 b o r4 b b b 1 + + 1 1 + + 1 c 1 = g ro CV CO o oo c> u^ ^J^ < c; b.D 3 o >-t h-t b o M M M b ^=1^" + + 7 + 1 + + + Q > 2 i c ^ r^ r^ iv^ oo M o a o m M •<1- b o ;^ ^ b V ' o \D u^ VO ^ ■ ° 1 o .2^ « 5- f^ n r3 ■^ ri "" " M B a 3 1% „ C^ WH g M r^ a WA c: »-« M r^ (C t-< .a <; E- -2 o ^ S o" to g ■3 to 4i M-O r> 00 3 02 »-i M 1-1 :H -^ C»H ^ c o P3 =3 H fc4 .a a ^ >■ . ^ °s% )H s M t^ a 3 <^ >= ?i ^ S VO r< (S a (S n o o f=! S S K So r^ oo n r^ r^ £ 1 + b a 3 b G b 1 b + T a 3 1 c " °*iZ « "^ ^ a ^ ^ -■ C^ r* ^J^ 3 g fA § w^ a *^ ^ r^ r« OT J^ "■ \., n M fcTN > u 1 1 + 1 2" to +2 1 + + 11 ■5*1 H a vO r~>. VO n \o oo ON - ? £ (S r» r^ rA 'p ^ ^ *J% ■^ to W^i u-i vr\ W~, to u^ vn »^ >r\ a s s^s,^ ^ vn C^ ^ r^ r^ g, t_ ^ 00 c CI tog -: p ^ ■-'^ M-g iBg=^ "^ b b b •" b b b b •5 a ■si 5§" 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + «a r^ vA r> ro u^ 00 t-^ r^ d O^ vO o> 00 00 rf\ =i c f^ f^ r-^ 1^ _c vO t-. 00 3 c^ 0^ b^ c> b *3N a oi 9 a 'S M i-t H 1^ n n t>^ C at si fc'g^ + 1 + + 1 + tia 5 g" -5 i "^ VA M t-. 00 CO i 1^ I~^ oo '^ 00 00 ON 00 : ;h : t-i '• ^ a "a, a: S > a ►^ -Tn'iEs IN Quarters. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. quarters. ^93.077 201,325 235,402 173,120 162,030 128,142 106,812 174,633 444,296 284,810 268,848 307,386 quarters. 248,047 258,883 278,086 204,519 238,483 268,599 166,485 174,904 255,286 256,984 220,876 244,933 quarters. 187,027 231,428 314,040 242,457 281,620 296,028 171,005 201,788 435,398 340,445 298,407 352,629 quarters. 267,827 309,376 377.003 293,494 222,003 229,749 120,154 123,889 371,590 367,672 269,351 322,756 quarters. 194,719 193,910 245,612 191,522 231,780 268,626 109,543 126,769 295,774 264,934 195,743 263,152 quarters. 183.987 202,977 238,125 159,268 225,595 219,750 ioi,ior 96,986 266,856 265,122 214,026 285.648 Average Pbices FEB QUARTEB. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d. First Month . . 70 4 51 10 43 ir 52 8 55 4 55 10 Second month 72 II 50 10 41 10 53 6 55 8 56 5 Third month ) (five weeks) j 73 I 46 5 41 3 54 6 55 I 55 6 Fourth month 73 4 46 4 42 7 58 2 54 2 54 10 Fifth month . . 74 3 44 8 43 10 59 I 56 3 55 8 Sixth month "i (five weeks) / 68 9 45 10 47 59 8 5^ 11 58 4 Seventh month 65 6 49 5 50 9 58 7 58 7 59 <> Eighth month 57 9 52 I 53 II 57 11 59 9 60 I Ninth month "l (five weeks) / 55 I 5i 4 47 57 5^ 7 63 10 ; Tenth month . . 53 II 47 8 47 4 56 5 58 7 60 10 Eleventh month 52 2 46 8 50 I 56 2 56 II 60 9 Twelfth month (five weeks) 50 2 44 2 52 4 56 2 56 ■; 61 6 ( XI ) Average Pkices of Bkitish Cork per Quarter (imperial measure) as received from the Inspectors and Officers of Excise according to the Act of 27tli & 28th Victoria, caj). 87, in each of the Fifty-two Weeks of the Year 1873. Vt'eek ending Wheat. Barley. Oat 3. Weuk ending "Wlieat. Barley, j Oats. 8. d. S. cl S. cZ. s. d. 8. d. 8. d. January 4 . . 55 ir 59 9 21 II .July 5.. 59 I 36 7 23 I January 1 1 . . 55 10 59 II 22 July 12.. 59 5 37 7 29 January i B . . 55 9 40 5 22 8 July 19.. 59 b 35 10 27 4 January 25 .. 55 9 40 5 22 I July 26.., 60 I 36 30 10 February i . . 56 8 40 3 n "» August 2 . . 59 9 3f> 8 28 5 February 8 . . 56 2 40 2 21 7 August g . . 59 11 34 " 27 5 February 15 .. 56 8 40 6 22 8 August 16.. 60 3 37 28 8 February 22.. 56 I 40 8 2r 7 August 23.. 60 3 39 6 29 9 Blarch I . . 56 2 40 5 22 8 August 30 62 5 39 II 28 9 March 8.. 55 5 40 4 2 2 4 Septemljer 6 65 4 42 5 27 I March 15.. 55 4 ^9 9 25 8 September 1 3 64 7 43 8 29 March 22.. 55 ^ 59 II -3 6 September 20 64 7 45 I 27 5 March 29.. 55 4 39 2, September 2 7 Average of j 64 2 44 8 27 Average of j Winter > 55 ID 40 I 2 2 6 Summer > 1 Quarter ) 61 4 39 2 28 4 Quarter j April 5 . . 54 II 59 I 24 5 October 4 . . 62 3 45 25 9 April 12.. 55 I 39 25 5 October 11.. bi 44 3 25 3 April 19.. 54 7 39 2 25 10 October 18.. 60 2 43 I 24 2 April 26.. 54 ID 59 4 25 10 October 25 .. 60 I 42 10 25 10 May 3.. 54 11 39 5 25 10 November i 59 10 43 I 25 May 10., 55 5 38 5 26 5 November 8 60 9 43 9 24 10 May 17.. 55 10 58 10 24 7 November 15 61 3 44 8 25 8 May 24 . . 56 10 58 4 25 5 November 2 2 61 I 44 5 25 9- May 31.. 57 5 57 I 26 II ' November 29 61 44 5 25 8. June 7 . . 58 8 58 2 26 2 December 6 61 6 45 26 I June 14.. 58 4 55 4 27 8 December 13 61 II 45 26 3 June 21 .. 58 10 58 9 26 8 1 December 20 61 7 44 7 26 3, June 28.. 58 8 36 8 25 II December 27 Average of j 61 8 44 6 26 Average of j Spring [ 56 5 38 3 25 3 Autumn > 61 I 44 2 25 7 Quarter ) Quarter J Note. — The system of preparing the Monthly Trade Accounts of the United Kingdom has been altered since the commencement of the year 1871, with the view of providing earlier and more accurate information. The quantities of articles imported are now taken from the " Importers' Entries," instead of from the " Landing Accounts," which are not completed until a much later date : the figures given for the Imports in January, 1871, will not, therefore, compare with those given for the months of January, 1869 and 1870 — the former showing the complete Importations of the month, and the latter only the Returns of the Landing Accounts so far as received within the month, by which method the last seven to ten days' Importations of the month were excluded. So great a divergence will not occur in subsequent months. The Import Account for the mouth of December, 1871, will in many cases- exhibit a considerable deficiency when compared with the month of December in ( XII ) Quantities of Wheat, Barley, Oats, Peas, Beans, Indian Corn or Maize, Wheatmeal and Flour, Imported in the Four Years 1870-73 ; also the Coun- tries from which the Wheat, Wheatmeal, and Flour were obtained. 1870. 1871. 1872. Wheat from — Russia Denmark Germany France Austrian Territories Turkey and Wallachia and'l Moldavia j Egypt United States Chili British North America Other countries Total Wheat Barley ■Oats Peas Beans Indian Corn, or Maize Wheatmeal and Flour from — Germany France United States British North America . . Other countries Total Wheatmeal and\ Flour / Indian Corn IMeal , cwts. 10,269,198 327.919 3,348,214 253.^44 60,472 489 , 42 r 104,950 12,371,922 599,337 2,838,361 237,791 30,901,229 7.217.327 10,830,630 1,799,354 1.505,798 if^ 756, 783 cwts. 15,629,435 130,370 3,049,031 134,841 239,147 1,418,886 884,396 13,405,057 549,529 3,279,264 687,690 39,407,646 8,589,059 11,007,106 1,021,950 2.975,651 16,832,499 cwts. 17,840,640 431,176 3,887,746 3,843,016 54,732 838,073 2,337,208 8,606,403 1,434,125 1,719,378 1,997,731 1873. cwts, 9,598,096 301,758 2,153,857 1,170,522 29,730 367,487 1,260,401 19,742,726 1,557.128 3,767,330 3,802,595 41,990,228 ! 43,751,630 15,078,140 ! 9,232,485 11,567,058 1,290,076 2,937,514 24,563,334 11,922,736 1,211,068 2,976,500 18,768,127 911,108 645,181 2,148,251 451,463 647,906 4,803,909 5,741 967,892 37,150 1,794,805 403,989 780,802 1,054,574 1,341,465 743,412 339,300 917,308 687,243 1,669,356 1,580,697 444,729 1,822,235 3,984,638 4,396,059 7,881 5,; 6,204,260 6,836 previous years. This circumstance should not be taken to indicate a decrease in the trade of the month, inasmuch as in former years the account for December was not published until the end of the following February, and embraced the record of large quantities of goods imported in previous months, but not registered until the "Landing Accounts " had been received. ( XIII ) rhe Average Prices of Consols, of Wheat, of Meat, and of Potatoes ; also the Average Number of Paupers relieved on the last day of each "Week ; and the MEA^' Temperature, in each of the Twelve Quarters ending December 31st, 1873. Quarters ending AvEKAGE Prices. ] Pauperism. Consols (for Money). Minimum Rate per Cent, of Discount charged by the Bank of Wheat per Quarter in England and Wales. Meat per lb. at the Jletro- politan Meat Market (by the Carcase). Potatoes (York Regents) 1 per Ton, | at Waterside 1 Market, Quarterly Average of the Number of Paupers re- lieved on the last day of each week. Mean Tempe- rature. Southwark. England. Beef. Mutton. In-door. Out-door. 1871 +■ s. d. tiar. 31 92I 2-7 53 7 ^d.—jid. sid.-nd. 75s. — lOos. 160,984 878,892 40-2 Mean 6|532 I. 473. 916 1,372,420 5,271,398 5,111,994 4,971,112 156,883 122,003 129,432 174,269 137,360 144,115 .. .. .. 60,030 61,931 63,278 22,323 18,512 13,474 565,886 667,299 720,990 1.S27.733 1.799.930 1,837.483 6,236,588 6,354,319 6,240,900 10,068,848 10,241,513 10,420,695 22,525,761 22,838,178 23,363,990 No. No. No. No. No. No. 3.973.102 4,057,153 4,151,561 9,346,216 9.718,505 10,153,670 4,228,721 4,262,117 4.486,453 31,403,500 32,246,642 33,982,404 1,616,754 1,385.386 1,044,218 4,136,616 4,178,000 3.563,532 537.633 540,745 531,708 1,802,108 1,808,259 1,817,831 324,285 .. 325,173 2,499,756 •• 2,512,251 VOL. X. — S. B ( XVIII ) Number of Men returned as Agricultukal Labourers, Labourers (branch undefined), Shepherd (out-door), and Farm Servant (in-door) at tach of the Three Censuses of England and Wales, 1851, 1861, and 1871. 1851. 1861. 1871. (a.) Agricultural Labourers . . (&.) Labourers (branch undefined) . . 908,678 3H,594 914,301 306,544 764,574 509,456 (c.) Shepherd (out-door) (d.) Farm Servant (in-door) 1,233,272 12,517 189,116 1,220,845 25,559 158,401 1,274,030 23,323 134,157 a + c ■{■ d 1,434,905 1,110,311 1,404,805 T, 098, 261 1,431,510 922,054 The following Table, showing the Density of Live-Stock in comparison with the Density of Population in England and Wales, is extracted from the Census Report of 1871. Proportion per cent, of To a Square MOe— the Number of Groups of Counties Peopei Cultivated Laud. Un- cultivated Land! Persons. Horsea used solely for Agri- culture, Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. ENGLAND and WALES . 74-81 25-19 390 19 77 356 44 England (including Men mouthshire) "} 77-17 22-83 422 19 77 352 46 "Wales .. , 58-50 41-50 165 16 82 389 32 Metropolitan Counties . 69-60 30-40 3498 17 60 116 52 South-eastern Counties . 80-07 19-93 3 75 17 47 425 46 South-midland Counties . 91-30 8-70 253 23 72 398 62 Eastern Counties 81-55 18-45 239 26 48 275 70 South-western Counties . 74-79 25-21 238 17 85 387 50 West-midland Counties . 85-94 14-06 444 20 92 334 54 North-midland Counties . • 85-37 14-63 257 21 95 451 43 North-western Counties . . 67-89 32-11 1131 17 128 145 38 Yorkshire 71-07 28-93 402 20 77 ■326 35 Northern Counties .. • 56-83 43-17 255 ir 64 371 14 Monmouthshire and Wale s 59-26 40-74 178 16 81 384 32 ( XIX ) The following remarks relating to Irish and Foreign Butter and to Cheese are extracted from ' The Grocer.' Irish Butter. —The transactions in January were very limited, with the exception of third and fourth Corks, the former at 99s. to 102s., and the latter at 88s. to 90s. In February, stocks were light, particularly so those fine and fresh : there were stale parcels offer- ing for resale, much below best. Quotations for finest Clonmels ruled at 136s. to 140s. throughout; thirds, 120s. to 135s. In March nearly all of fine quality was cleared oif ; the chief part of that left on hand consisted of stale parcels ; for the little fine left, high rates were asked, and this caused a wide range in quotations. In April there was not enough Clonmels and butter of that class lying in the London market to establish quotations ; there was a wide range in the asking rates. On the 21st April the Cork market opened with the new season's brands at very high prices — say 150s. for both firsts and seconds. At no period during the month of May did the stocks of Irish butter at the public wharves amount to 500 firkins, the chief part being stale parcels oifered for resale. Through- out the month there was no quotable price for Clonmels, &c. The quantity lying in the London market was small in June, and nearly all old. In the first week of July there was a little more doing in sales. In August there was a fair average extent of business trans- acted ; the variation in prices was small. In the early part of September there was a moderate extent of business doing. In October high prices checked sales ; the nearly nominal quotations for Clonmels were 132s. to 140s. In November the demand was very limited, quotations for Clonmels, &c., began and finished at 134s. to 142s. With a few exceptions the transactions in December were small ; quotations were chiefly 140s. to loOs. for first Corks. Cork Butter Market. — 1873 has again been a year of high prices in butter, as well as in most other articles, and three figures in the quotations are now as much a matter of course as two were formerly — the lowest quality now often touching close on the price of the highest in former days. The past season in the Cork butter market opened about May 1, and at the respectable rate of 145s. ; but it was expected that a more genial summer than that of 1872 would bring in a largely increased supply and more moderate prices ; and under the influence of this opinion and of the natural course of things, prices gradually and rapidly declined, 120s. being about the average for May, 114s. for June, and 113s. for the early part of July — the lowest point of the year having been reached in the middle of that month. Since then there has been a steady and constant advance, each month registering a higher range of ( XX ) prices, till they have finally attained the rates the market opened at in spring. The expectations of an increased supply to the market in 1873 have heen disappointed, the receipts being in round numbers but 360,000 firkins, against 400,000 in the same period of 1872, showing the very large decrease of 40,000 firkins. This is attributable to the farmers having fattened the cattle for sale instead of keeping them for dairy purposes ; so that, although the prices of butter may be called high, there were great attractions in other branches in farming, FouEiGN Butter. — The month of January commenced with very heavy stocks lying at the London market, say over 25,000 packages, and a great portion of it of very inferior and doubtful quality. There was a good demand for finest Normandys at the beginning of the month at 134s. to 154s., closing at 140s. to 156s. Dutch varied considerably. In February the greater part of the stocks lying in the London market was of inferior quality ; prices for finest Normandys, the first week, 148s. to 156s., then a reduction of 4s. the second and third weeks, and a further 4s. at the close ; best Dutch, 135s. to 142s. With fair average supplies the month of March opened with a somewhat quieter feeling ; the chief part of the arri- vals were of middling quality : very little American in the market. The arrivals in April were of full average, and best Normandys were quoted at 124s. to 134g. the first week. The coldness of the weather at the end of this month had some efi'ect upon prices ; no American. In May supplies were large, over 120,000 packages. Best Nor- mandys began at 122s. to 126s. In June, arrivals were large, but a good deal being wanted for Manchester, Liverpool, &c., a clearance was effected. Best Normandys were in request at about 112s. to 118s.: no American, and scarcely any arriving. In July arrivals were large. Best Normandys sold steadily at 112s. to 118s. until the last week, when, the weather being hot, buyers operated sparingly at a reduction of 2s. per cent. Supplies in August were a little beyond an average extent. The fear of the Adulteration Act operated against doubtful descriptions. In September supplies were large ; a good demand for finest qualities. In October, sup- plies were bej'ond average ones ; but the feeling was scarcely so firm as it had been. Asking rates were — Normandys, 13Gs. to 144s. ; American, slow sale at from 90s. to 124s. In November the arrivals were very large, a considerable portion of it of second and third rate qualities. Best Normandys saleable at 136s. to 146s. American, sale slow at from 96s. to 104s. for inferior, to 126s. for finest. In December the foreign supplies were large, but holders of fine qualities firm. ( XXI ) Cheese. — In January holders of fine English showed no desire to press sales, but were anxious to move off lower qualities. The range in prices was gi'eat between best and common sorts, best and good Cheshire being offered at 70s, to 84s., common qualities o6s. to 66s. American, early in the month — best66s. to 72s., middling descriptions 60s. to 62s. In February holders of fine English cheese were firm, but willing sellers of second-class and low qualities. Finest Cheshire at the beginning of the month 78s. to 84s., at the close 80s. to 88s. Best American 66s, to 74s. In March the market was firm for fine English : Cheshire 70s., 88s., and Cheddar 90s., 94s. The quantity of fine American lying at the London market was small. Although holders of fine English were firm in April, no change in prices was quoted during the month — Cheddar ranged from 70s. to 94s., Cheshire from 70s. to 88s. The variation in American was only 2s., prices being 66s. to 76s. the first part, and 66s. to 74s. the last part of the month. The market, with light stocks, and the growth of grass unusually late, ruled firm throughout May : the few parcels of American that arrived found buyers fast as to hand. Best Cheshire 80s. to 88s. Cheddar 80s. to 96s. ; best American 66s. to 74s. In June the stocks of the best descriptions of fine English of last season's make being nearly cleared off, and the backwardness of this season preventing an early supply of new, holders of the little fine that was left were very firm. In July fine English of last season's make held firmly; the arrivals of American were large, but the conditions being far better than that of the new English, the demand rested chiefly upon the former. In August fine English was exhausted ; quotations for old ceased early in the month. New Cheddar was afterwards quoted at 76s. to 86s. : sup- plies of American were large. With cooler weather in September supplies of English came forward more freely ; quotations for new — Cheddar 78s. to 86s., Cheshire 56s. to 86s. Some of the American arrivals in the early part of the month showed evidence of having been made in hot weather ; the sale of these pressed at 62s. to 64s, In October the makers of fine English cheese were firm, and the dealers from large country towns were the most anxious buyers. The state of money matters in America caused a little uncertainty as to what would be the effect upon the market for American cheese in November ; the general prices for fine qualities were 70s. to 72s. In December the market was firm ; finest Cheshire 80s. to 86s., best Cheddar 88s. to 92s., best American 70s. to 72s. ( XXII ) Q O o Ph M ^ « g O <. ^=^ « >' o ^ « ^ ■< CO o 1— 1 H e 'A < t-5 Oi o (J 1—1 O" -i1 <1 S? P H C/J E-i CO o vO r^ oo o OO QO VO -d- ■* »-a ^ n *^ ■^ •=r ^ " Tj< 1 ^ ■^ ■^ ^ " t- o 00 ^ -^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ii! to ^ ^ rn o n oo o o kTN o o vJ^ f^ ^A ^ ^ c* o o o> r^ o Ov M M M " M M Hi " Ht » -i- rA vo ON ^ O O o "^ f^ r^ ^ r*^ O CO I-* r< ^ kTN o j *i M H l-t M M i-t »H HI w ^ 1 CO g ] t- o 1 00 J„ -fj ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ » o o VD rA o r-^ o r« -1- r* O o n rs r--\ -f\ ^ «-H & t- o O 00 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ M ^ „ ^ I-H (S » o VO M ^ ri r< OO fS o o ■ti- l-A ri -I- r^ r< M (S t-i M cv H H H M M M M M ^ s o vJ^ O ^ o o vO o D rr\ rA <'-^ M o o (S m M M Hi o & t- O 00 ^ +J •V ^ K «. r. ^ ^ ^ r^ . r. rH &! cc -^ r» ^ rA r-- o O -^ -:f -+ o o ri M O o o o Ov o l-H ^ " M M M M " " HI 00 o vr\ o OO o Th O vr\ o r^ ^ ^ ■^ (S rn r^ ^ ri M M t-t M M •-1 i-» t-i HI CJ is CO o 00 t< -*-s ^ ^ „ ^ ^ ^ , » ^ CC vO vD rA »J^ r^ O o n » CO q^ "co d rg :! .2 =3 p o s 5 yA 1—1 O (N CO "^ 3 ►-5 "o a o s i 3 3 fS w ??i <1 3 p^ n ( XXIII ) o O 4: a s o fc : : : : o : o . • • : i 'S o O <0 c3 ^ Sk-1 o ^ o w. o J3 >» ;z; P O M H ( XXIV ) Statement of the Quantity and Value of Butter imported from the United States, Belgium, Fkance and Holland ; and of Cheese imported from the United States and Holland, 1864-72. UNITED STATES. Years. Butter. Cheese. Quantities. Computed Real Value. Quantities. Computed Real Value. Cwts. £. Cwts. £. 1864 ,, 142,672 780,024 466,988 1,213,890 1865 .. 83,216 437,703 442,913 1,296,204 1866 .. 16,059 77,754 415.726 1,386,447 1867 .. 39,035 113,290 526,740 1,470,017 1868 .. 7. "7 37.279 489,117 1,439.380 1869 .. 17,203 84,603 487,870 1,612,325 1870 .. 16,915 80,928 555.385 1,861,263 1871 .. 83,775 394,359 731,326 2,014,805 1872 .. 45 , 765 199,679 598,198 1.701,435 BELGIUM. FRANCE. BUTTEB. BOTTEB. Cwts. £. Cwts. £. 1864 .. 81,575 470,167 163,020 858,793 1865 .. 70,619 433.179 353,115 1,867,085 1866 .. 76,667 426,712 452,196 2,276,493 1867 .. 80,754 470,464 450,693 2,265,147 1868 .. 70,456 405,987 393,578 2,156,824 1869 .. 85,789 481,609 407,432 2,231,450 1870 .. 84,408 516,643 289,692 1,672,899 1871 .. 94.539 523,460 304,683 1,636,006 1872 ..' 74,191 409,555 355>o89 1,916,795 HOLLAND. Bdttek. Cheese. Cwts. £. Cwts. £. 1864 .. 336,224 1,774,462 336,831 881,973 1865 .. 345,026 1,886,486 386,962 1,100,037 1866 .. 383.225 1,979,070 426,559 i>3r7,23r 1867 .. 326,217 1,733,459 332,628 961,245 1868 .. 343.322 1,992,414 329,565 959,547 1869 ,. 415,176 2,253,420 426,913 1,262,101 1870 .. 406,795 2,388,459 422,553 1,204,830 1871 .. 390,616 1,986,708 548,148 954,236 1872 .. 269,091 1,358,579 329,535 942,537 JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. I. — Report upon the Agricultural Features of tltc Vienna Exhi- bition, 1873. By John Wrightson, Professor of Agriculture in the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. The following report is intended to precede an account of the agri- culture of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A description of the domestic animals, implements, and products of that wonderful dominion seems a fitting introduction to the task still before me, and a study of the Agricultural features of the Vienna Exhibi- tion supplies much of the necessary material. A report upon objects no longer before us is apt to become somewhat tedious. The subject has therefore been handled with the view of bringing the true nature of the Exhibition before the reader without wearying him with repetition or detail. The first pages are devoted to the Live Stock Show, opened to the public on May 31st, and closed on June 7th, 1873 ; next, some attention is given to the Agricultural Implements, so far as they are peculiar to the requirements of European agriculture as distinguished from British agriculture ; and lastly, Agricultural Products are briefly considered. Live Stock Show. The announcement that an International Cattle and Live Stock Show would be held in Vienna in connection with the great Exhibition of 1873, was received with no small interest in England. Distance, difficulties connected with exportation, and other reasons, however, operated to prevent a large collection of English stock appearing, and, consequently, the Bi'itish section of the Cattle-show was scarcely a fair illustration of the pre- eminence of Britain as a stock-breeding country. The stock exhibited by our countrymen will be reported upon in their proper position, and that they occupied the first place VOL. X. — S. S. B 2 Report upon the Agricultural Features in the catalogue is a sign of appreciation which should not be passed unnoticed. No person could doubt that, judging the Cattle-show as a col- lection of animals, he had before him at once the finest and most interesting assortment ever summoned together by the stimulus of competition. There were gathered in that arena, not only materials to instruct the breeder and rearer of stock, but also the naturalist, the " evolutionist," and the comparative anatomist. Neither was the picturesque element wanting, and the artistic eye might well be satisfied as it ranged over such a diversity of colour and form, heightened by the rich-coloured and picturesque clothing of the peasant attendants from the various parts of the Austrian dominions. The International Cattle-show was certainly to me the most interesting feature of the Vienna Exhibition. It possessed a charm of novelty, which could scarcely be said to belong to collections of silks, jewellery, gold, porcelain, and glass. To form an idea of the interest of the Vienna Cattle-show the reader must imagine the pleasure of contrasting his favourite native Shorthorns with their relatives bred for many years abroad, or with crosses effected between British and foreign races. He must endeavour to picture the majestic Hungarian ox as a larger type of the wild cattle of Chillingham Park. He must call to his memory the fawn-coloured cattle of Switzerland, black and white Dutch, red and white Bernese, silver-grey Allgauers, swarthy buffaloes. Merino sheep, and wool-bearing swine. It was allowed on all hands that such a magnificent collection of domestic animals had never been brought together, and the show of Merino sheep, especially, was declared to be unprecedented. With such mate- rials, all that was necessary to make the exhibition successful was good arrangement. It was here, however, that the Vienna Cattle- show failed ; and as a means of instruction this superb collec- tion of animals seemed to have been called together for but little purpose. The general scheme, as shown in the accompanying plan (Fig. 1), was excellent ; but urifortunately the names of the various nationalities, there so conspicuous, did not appear in the actual show-yard until the last day of the exhibition. The scattered state of the various breeds made the work of the jurymen peculiarly arduous. Their first work was to find the cattle, then to go backwards and forwards across the show-yard to compare one with another, and lastly they met in a tent and voted. Theie was no show ring, and there were no classes. The unfortunate juryman was requested to give his opinion as to whether he preferred this yearling or that aged bull, this pro- mising heifer or that blooming middle-aged cow. Under these circumstances it was perhaps as well that no of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. Fig. 1. — Plan of (lie Agricultural Show-Yard at the Vienna Universal Exhibition, 1873. FODDER-STAND D □ I ~] I CaEAT- BRITAIN CRERT- BRITAIN I FRANCE ITALY GERMANY FODDER -STAND a n« |TAI^ ITALY Oz y^ Oz Du D' o^ DA o^ FODDER-STAND o. o. 0-' o 1 — I U^ o AD ^o D .a V zO AD ^o u a. h < I— lo FODDEB-STAND D A A. Latrines. CATTLE- RINCS D Z Z. Tents. B 2 4 Report upon the Agricultural Features more searching^ judgment was required than to give an opinion as to whether the exhibitor was entitled to a " medal for progress" or must be satisfied with a " medal for co-operation." Scarcely less happy was the arrangement of the stalls. The cattle stood in short rows across the sheds at right angles to their length, and not in a long single or double row, as in an English show-yard. The male visitor therefore crossed and recrossed the sheds in too close proximity to the heels of one row of cattle and the horns of another. Ladies could not make a series of such hazardous excursions, and therefore they were debarred from any but the most cursory glimpses. English Cattle. England occupied the first place in the catalogue, and, as might have been expected, so far at least as cattle are concerned, it was solely represented by Shorthorns. Mr. John Brown, of Grey Street, Hull, exhibited six young bulls ; the Messrs. William and Henry Dudding, of Panton House, Lincolnshire, exhibited one bull : Mr. John Fowler, of Aylesbury, a bull and heifer, and Mr. Henry Frederick Smith, of Hamwath House, Sutton ^lill, Yorkshire, showed one good yearling bull. These ten specimens completed the English cattle section, and some surprise was expressed on the part of foreign visitors that there was so small a show. Looking at the English section as a whole, it could not be said to give a first-class idea of our favourite race, but there were two or three animals of considerable merit. Mr. Fowler's bull exhibited ampleness of form, was thoroughly well haired, and possessed the characteristic grandeur of head and neck peculiar to the race ; his colour also was gay, and his quality satisfactory. Some judges might have preferred Messrs. Dudding's red yearling bull " British Prince," but as he was many months younger it was difficult to compare the two ani- mals. Both, however, were passed by the judges in favour of Mr. Smith's (No. 10) bull, which eventually was placed first. Evidently the judges were determined to look only at what may be called the flesh points of these animals. It probably would have been in vain to have pointed out to them a certain swarthiness, amounting almost to black, or brindled stripes, in the coat of their favourite, or to contrast his short hair with the flossy, silky coat of Mr. Fowler's bull. They appeared equally indifferent to that nobleness of head and neck which Mr. Fowler's bull certainly possessed in no small degree. They also considered that defi- ciency behind the sluwlder, which English Shorthorn judges are too apt to condone as belonging to the race, an unpardonable fault. On the other hand, general levelness, length, and substance of of tlie Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 5 carcass were evidently in their eyes all-important, and it was according to this standard that the awards were apparently made. Mr. Robert Russell, of Horton Court, Kent, while himself an exhibitor in the sheep classes, showed his practical appreciation of excellence, whether found at home or abroad, by purchasing examples of foreign breeds of sheep and cattle. The present seems a fitting place to refer to this fact, because it is interesting to chronicle the introduction of foreign breeds of live stock into this country, conjointly with the introduction of our own im- proved races into other lands. Mr. Russell became a purchaser of Swiss and Italian cattle and Merino sheep, and, in answer to a letter of inquiry, he replies as follows : — " In answer to yours respecting my foreign cattle, I think perhaps the first thing to mention concerning them would be give you some little idea as to the trouble and expense of importing foreign stock. These, you are aware, I purchased at the Vienna Exhibition, there being one cow and two heifers of the pure-bred Swiss breed, also a thoroughbred Italian bull calf, aged four n:!oiiths. In the first place, my man railed them to Antwerp, and on arriving there found that if they were shipped to England from that port they would have to be slaughtered ; he then came over to England for instructions. I received information that if they were shipped from Kotterdam they could land at Harwich, and, by going through their quarantine of twelve hours, would be passed without any further trouble. I despatched my man over to Antwerp again, to rail them from there to Rotterdam ; but on arriving on the boundary of Belgium and Holland, he was started off back with them, not being allowed to go into Holland ; then I applied to the Privy Council for an order to land them ; but the only one I could get was to ship them from Antwerp to London, then tranship them into a barge, then into the Dublin steamer for Southampton, at which place they were to undergo a month's quarantine ; then I railed them home. However, now I do not regret the trouble I took, as I am very pleased with them. The Swiss cows are of a dark mouse colour; in appearance rather bull-headed, very level on the back, have wonder- ful large bone, and there is no doubt they are very hardy ; they always appear in good condition, even when not having cake or cabbage, and they are very docile, and hardier than Shorthorns. They are very good milkers, but not so good as I should have expected perhaps, as they neither give so much milk, nor of such good quality, as the Alderney ; but I have found out the way to obtain most beautiful butter, by mixing half iMderney and half Swiss milk. A great many of my friends have tasted the butter, and pronounce it to be the best they ever tasted. I intend trying three crosses, viz., one with the Italian bull and Swiss cows ; one with an Alderney bull and Swiss cows ; and one between the Italian bull and Alderney cows, to get a greater size. I have been extremely fortunate, as one of the heifers calved down (bull calf) at . Antwerp, the other heifer at Southampton (bull calf), and the cow having a cow calf about six weeks ago ; they all seem to thrive wonderfully. "The Italian bull, since 1 have had him, has improved very much, and we have to keep him well, as he is inclined to outgrow his strength. His colour is sandy. 1 do not admire his points so much, but when he commences to fill out he will no doubt improve. He feeds well, and is healthy. The breed is a very large one, as the mother, I think, was the finest sjiecimen of a cow I ever saw. They are wonderfully good milking cows as to quantity, but for 6 Report upon the Agricultwal Features quality I cannot say. The weight of bulls at three years old of this breed would be between 25 to 30 cwt. live weight. " I also purchased four pure-bred Merino ewes, which I think of crossing with my Long-wool breed. One of the ewes has lambed down about three weeks since, having twins — one ram lamb and one ewe lamb. The other three have been tupped from my Long-wool class, which will improve the quality of my wool, losing but slightly the length of staple." Shorthorns and Shorthorn crosses having especial interest for the English farmer, it seems advisable to deviate here from the plan of treating the cattle of each country in the order of the catalogue, and to make a few^ remarks on our dominant race as it appears, after it has been for a time in foreign hands and exposed to new climatic conditions. Comparatively few Shorthorns and Shorthorn crosses were to be seen in Vienna, and in this respect tlie Exhibition faithfully represented the state of the country subsequently passed through. Most prominent among the promoters of this breed is the Archduke Albrecht, the owner of vast estates both in Upper and Lower Hungary. I subsequently visited these estates, and learnt that the first Shorthorns imported suffered from lung disease, although later purchases had been more fortunate. Also that the race was not spreading into the surrounding country from the centres where the Archduke had established them. The Archduke exhibited four pure-bred Shorthorn bulls, all bred in Hungary ; three cross-bred Shorthorn-Dutch bulls ; two cows, two calves, and four fat calves similarly bred ; two fat oxen, the result of a cross between Bernese cattle and Short- horns, and a fine collection of fat cows, calves, and oxen de- scribed as Shorthorn crosses. The Shorthorn bulls were all smoother in the coat than English-bred cattle usually are, and since this is a characteristic of all the South European races, it may be regarded as a tendency to alteration from changed climatic conditions. It was, however, in the Shorthorn crosses that the Archduke's success, as a breeder and improver of stock, was rendered most evident. Take as an example his bull No. 726 in the catalogue, by a Shorthorn bull, and from a Dutch cow. This animal was in colour red and white, and in form, despite a little lowness in the chine, very excellent. After inspecting a large number of similarly bred animals on the estate Bellye, in Lower Hungary, I can speak to the very handsome appear- ance, good quality, and good milking properties of these animals. It is premature to speak of them as an established race, but as a cross they are worthy of the highest commendation. These animals are red and white, black and white, and almost black. Neither must I neglect to mention a lot of five very splendid cows described as Shorthorn crosses, and numbered in the of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 7 catalogue 756-760. Of these, No. 759 was undoubtedly the best. The Archduke's ten half-bred steers by Shorthorn sires were much and deservedly admired, many Englishmen declaring that they were well worthy of a place in our Islington show. Not far distant from the Archduke Albrecht's attractive collection, was the stand of the Sugar Factory Company, Keltschan, Moravia, with its excellent show of Shorthorn-Kuhlander and Shorthorn- Dutch cattle. Among the animals exhibited by this company the most admired were a brownish-red cross-bred cow between Shorthorn and Kuhlander, and another cow of mixed blood de- scribed as " Shorthorn-Hollander (Dutch) -Miirtzthaler," of dark grey colour, with a little white. These, with the addition of two " Shorthorn-Kuhlander " cattle, entered for exhibition by Josephine Bamreither, Schloss Linz, Lubenz, Bohemia, were the only representatives of Shorthorn cattle contributed to the Vienna Exhibition from the entire Austro-Hungarian Empire, and it will be seen that the only exhibitor of pure-bred Short- horns in the whole empire was the Archduke Albrecht. Germany contributed seven specimens, two of which were ex- hibited by Baron von Magnus, Drehsa, Post Tammritz, Saxony, a gentleman well known to English breeders, both of cattle and sheep, as a spirited buyer and enthusiastic improver of stock. Three of the remaining five were the property of F. Sagemiiller, Abbehausen, Oldenburg ; one English-bred bull of fair quality was exhibited by H. Sprengel, Schillerslage, Burgdorf, Hanover, and a single example appeared from Holstein. Judging the Shorthorns by the highest English standard of merit, and sup- posing that first-class animals had been sent from the mother- country, none of the foreign-bred cattle could be spoken of as first-rate, and it is more than probable that these cattle will deteriorate or at least alter in foreign hands. The climate speedily changes the coat, causing the cattle to assume that smooth description of hair before commented upon, and secondly, unavoidable want of knowledge on the part of the breeder as to points of " character," more than points of utility, must end in alteration of type if not in deterioration. It is too much to imagine that an Austrian or Hungarian breeder will be alive to the importance of those almost countless points of character which are so keenly discussed in animals brought under the notice of English judges. They rest their judgment reasonably enough upon milking properties, early maturity, and rapid fattening ; but let any breeder of Shorthorns ask himself whether the uniformity, beauty, and character of a herd could be kept up solely by bearing those three important points in view. We must not accuse the foreign breeders of want of taste, because we find that thev judge by a standard different from steer, No. TTe. steer, No. 772 ft. in. ft. in. 8 2 7 6 5 2 4 101 5 8 5 3 7 4 7 1 4 5 4 2 1 5 1 2i y 8 8 Report upon the Afjricultural Features our own ; but we may look in consequence to a rapid modifica- tion of the breed in their hands. The following are the measurements of two fat steers described as red-and-black Shorthorn crosses, exhibited by the Archduke Albrecht : — Girth Height at shoutder Length from shoulder to tail liead Length from poll to tail head Shoulder point to hook bone Girth above knee Girth below knee Italian Cattle. There were 35 head of cattle entered from Italy, but only 10 appeared. They were generally described in the catalogue as bulls, cows, or calves, and were self-coloured,* varying in indi- viduals from a very light grey approaching white, to fawn colour. The skin around the eyes and on the nose was black. The colour, as is often the case in these light-coloured races, was darker on the neck and inside the ears. The horns were turned up, short, and black tipped. Three cattle from Turin were of a richer colour, and especially one of the calves was of a fine fawn colour. One of the bull calves was purchased by Mr. Robert Russell of Farningham, Kent, and brought to England after much trouble and delay, in company with a cow and two heifers of the Swiss race, and some Merino ewes in lamb (see page 5). The animals of the Reggio race in this department were similar to those just described, but were of a much richer fawn colour. German Cattle. One hundred and twenty head of cattle were entered from Germany, including specimens of ten races, in the following proportions : — 38 Dutch cattle (Hollanders) ; 10 East Friesland ; 5 West Friesland ; 16 crossed Dutch and East Friesland ; 11 Oldenburg; 1 Friburg ; 3 Groningen ; 16 Baden (Badner- landschlag, and from Messkirch in Baden) ; 1 Montafuner ; 7 Shorthorns ; 1 Shorthorn crossed with Pinzgauer ; 9 Simmen- thaler ; and 2 Scotch polled Angus. Of these, the Simmen- thaler and Friburg are of Swiss origin, while the Dutch, Oldenburg, East and West Friesland, are essentially Dutch cattle, * By this term is meant that the colour was uuiform over the whole bodv. of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 9 closely resembling each other. These cattle are familiar to English agriculturists under the name of Dutch cattle, and under the various designations above given they formed a very leading feature in the German section of the Cattle-show. About 90 per cent, of this race are black and white ; 5 per cent, are grey and white, and 5 per cent, are red, or red and white. A mixed " pepper-and-salt," or black and white roan is also sometimes- noticeable. These cattle give a large quantity of milk of watery quality. A large landed proprietor who supplies milk to Vienna^ purchased Dutch cows for the purpose, but was compelled to relinquish them in favour of the Allgauer (Bavarian) race, in. order to retain his customers. The following descriptions of these cattle were taken on the ground, and will give some idea of their form and character. No. 150 was a characteristic bull of the West Friesland sub-variety of the Dutch race, exhibited by K. C. Riist, Bingum, Hanover. The colour was black and white, and the hair was short and not indicating what we in England call " quality." The horns were short and black, the muzzle black, the buttocks rather drooping, and the back a little narrow. The same gentleman exhibited three really handsome milking cows (Nos. 1.52—4), of the same race, black and white in colour, with long heads, black or speckled muzzles, short horns curved forward, and tipped with black ; fine necks, good general forms, but a little narrow, and rather drooping in the hind- quarters. The quality, as indicated by touch, was fair, and the cows showed good, well-developed udders. The same exhibitor also owned the three Groningen cows above-mentioned. They were of silver grey, and black and white colours, and were, like all Mr. Rust's exhibits, born in Holland. The specimens of East Friesland cattle noticed were exhibited by the East Friesland Agricultural Society, Bingum, Hanover, and were black and white, grey and white, and reddish-brown in colour. The Oldenburg cattle are black and white, and occasionally grey and white. They are in appearance scarcely discernible from what are described as Dutch, but are said to yield a richer milk, to be handsomer in form, more easily fattened, and finer in the bone. All the cattle exhibited under this name were bred in the Province of Oldenburg, which is contiguous to, and is nearly surrounded by, what was recently the kingdom of Hanover. We must also notice the specimens of Dutch cattle exhibited by Messrs. Boekhoff, Brothers, of Bingum, East Fries- land, all of which were bred in Holland. The herd consists of 400 head, and these are bred entirely for milk. The exhibitor supplies the whole demand for all the estates of the Archduke Albrecht,, where these cattle are required. A bull and seven cows from this stock were sold for 4000 florins (400/.) during the Exhibition.. 10 Report upon the Agricultural Features Among the representatives of English blood, Baron Magnus's Shorthorns may be noticed, comprising a cow bred in Saxony and a bull bred in England. A good white bull was also observed, bred in England, but exhibited by Herr H. Sprengel. It is worthy of remark that so few German-bred Shorthorns appeared on this great occasion, and the fact may be taken as indicating, that in spite of our export trade, the Shorthorn is yet unknown over vast tracts of the German Empire. We must defer for the present the consideration of the remaining breeds •exhibited in the German section, as they formed more charac- teristic features of the pastoral life of other countries. Austrian Cattle. The Austrian Empire, excluding the Hungarian kingdom, contributed 559 head of cattle, including numerous examples of above thirty races, some of which have ])een already noticed. These were mixed or shuffled together in the greatest possible confusion, so that it was impossible to obtain a good idea of the various breeds. This was the more to be regretted, as the Austrian section presented by far the greatest diversity of races. The black-and-white Dutch cattle at once gave a character to the German section of the Show ; the Hungarian oxen did the same service for Hungary, while the Austrian section alone was richly diversified. An exhaustive description of these thirty races would carry us Ijeyond the legitimate limits of a Report upon the Vienna Cattle- show. It will therefore be my aim to confine the following remarks to what might fairly be considered as matter of observation upon the show-ground ; and the reader who wishes for more detailed information is referred to MM. Moll et Gayot's ' Connaissance du Boeuf ' (1860), where he will find much valuable information, besides illustrations of all the leading European races. The Austrian section was well filled, and the 559 entries inight be analysed as follows : — Head. Podolian 9 Galician race. Murzthaler 48] Mariahofer 41 > Styrian race. Murbodenscblag o) Oberinnthaler 6' Montafuner 26 Patzuauer 8 Zillerthaler 3 \ Tyrolese race. Kemater 4/ Kitzbichler 5 Tyrolese 3j Swiss races. Moravian races. lemian races. of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 11 Head. Molthaler 12\ ^, . ,, . T ,,-. 1 o) Carinthian races. Lavanttnaler oj Pinzgauer 59 Salzburg race. Yorarlberg 4 Vorarlberg race. East Swiss 30v Bernese 88 1 AUgiiuer 32 j Simmenthaler 4j Kuhlander 18^ Deutscher 2 1 Deutscher ord. cattle . . . . 8 j Moravian 3j Schienfelder 6) -n ■. Lgerlander 7/ Dutch and crosses 63 Holland race. Shorthorns and crosses .. ..10 English race. Hungarian and crosses . . . . 9 Hungarian race. Other races and various crosses 36 Of these, twenty races are native to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, but it will be noticed that Swiss and Dutch cattle occupy a very important position. Including the Kuhlander cattle (a constant, yet crossed Tyrolese and Swiss, race), these animals constituted about two-fifths of the Austrian section. Shorthorn crosses appeared to the number of about ten, and the pure breed was not represented. Of these ten, eight were exhibited by the Sugar Factory Company of Keltschan, Moravia, already mentioned, and the remaining two were the property of Josefine Barnreither, of Bohemia, thus giving the most correct idea, that over vast tracts of the Empire the Shorthorn is unknown. This impression was confirmed by travel. The Podolian Race. — Baron Jacob Romaszkan, of Horodenka, Galicia, heads the Austrian catalogue as an exhibitor of Podolia* bulls and working oxen. This race is distributed over the greater part of Galicia, the exception being the mountainous district of the Carpathians, where a distinct race prevails. It is computed that Galicia sends about 20,000 fat cattle annually to the markets of Vienna and Olmutz. The cows give, after weaning their calves, 725 litres, or 160 English gallons of milk per annum. It often requires six or seven months to fatten them (Moll and Gayot). For milking and fattening purposes, therefore, the Podolian race is not of great value. It is as working oxen that they are most esteemed. MM. Moll and Gayot state that they will travel 2^ miles per hour when yoked to an empty waggon, and 1^ mile per hour when drawing a load. The four oxen exhibited at Vienna were trained to six different methods of yoking. They were fine-looking animals, of silver-grey colour, very uniformly tinted over the whole body, but slightly darker on the shoulders and haunches. The horns, which are charac- 12 Bcport vpoti the Arjri cultural Features teristic, are black, well turned up, and not long:. They resemble the Hungarian ox (page 31), and probably resulted from crossing- this animal with an ancient race indigenous to Galicia. They are, however, shorter and thicker in the horn, shorter in the legs, and shorter and deeper in the body — altogether, nearer the ground and lower in stature than the true Hungarian ox. Fig. 2. — Podolian Cow (Galicia), exliihited h>/ Baron Jacob von licmaszlcan, of Horodenka* The Podolian is an aboriginal race of cattle, descended from the Avild Urox f {Bos prvmigenius). This race, whose distribution may be regarded as already known, is distinguished by its capability of resisting the influence of the seasons^ and its contentedness with poor diet. In Moldavia and Bessarabia the cattle are kept in the fields both in summer and winter, and are exposed to all the inclemencies of the weather. This breed is not subject to j^leuropneumonia, and foot-and-mouth disease affects it very slightly, while the cattle-plague kills only from 12 to 20 per cent, of the beasts attacked. Podolian oxen are very much sought after for fattening purposes. Nearly 75 per cent, of the oxen slaughtered at Vienna belong to tlds race. The meat is very much esteemed, and is distinguished for its tenderness and agreeable flavour. The milk-producing powers of this breed are rather infeiior, but they could, no doubt, be very considerably Increased by better rearing and more nutritious * The figures of Autstriaii cattle (Figs. 2-S) are copied from pliotographs kindly lent for the purpose by Lieut. T. H. Anttey, E.E., of the Iloyal British Commis- sion for the Vienna Universal Exhibition. The descriptions printed in small type under each figure, are translations of those attached to the photographs. — Edit. t In the original Auewclis. Some contusion exists in reference to the nomenclature of the ancient races of cattle ; but, according to Professor Owen and Mr. Boyd Dawkins, the Urox is Bos jjrimiijenius of Bojanus ( = Bos Urus of Julius Caesar), while the Auerochs is the European Bison {Bos Bison of Pliny). — Edit. of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 10 o food. The Podolian cattle are especially useful for grazing purposes, and stall-feeding is equallj' suitable to them. Their colour is generally white or silver-grey, with variations passing into dark-grey, which shade is particularly seen in the bulls. These are darker in colour than the cows, and, indeed, are dark-grey on the neck, dewlap, and fore-feet, passing into white towards the ribs. The muzzle is white, the nostrils and upper lip black ; the back is level, the set-on of the tail being iu the same straight line. M'drzthaler. — These beautiful cattle are native to Austria, and are found pure in the valleys of the Miirz and the Mur, in Stjria. They are considered to be closely allied to the Hungarian cattle. The oxen work from three to eight years in the valleys and five or six years on the mountains, after which they are fatted. The cows are great milkers, and have been known to produce 775 gallons per annum, and 464 gallons is given as a usual average. JFig. 3. — MilrztJial Coio (Styna), exhibited hj Geysa Bittei- von Wachtler. The characteristic peculiarities of the pure Miirzthal race are the follow- ing : — The skin and mucous membrane are of a dark colour, as is shown in the mouth and on the tongue (blue tongue), muzzle dark ; the horns are white, short, smooth, and thin, but black at the tips, directed forwards, and then turned somewhat upwards ; the tail is long and thin, and is furnished with a black tuft ; hoofs, black ; the colour of the hair is bright or dark-grey (badger- grey), with brighter stripes round the muzzle ; colour-rings round the eyes, and dark-coloured belly. The calves of the pure breed have a dark-blue tongue. Three varieties of the Miirzthal breed may be distinguished, namely, the large, the medium, and the small. With regard to the distribution of the whole of the pure Miirzthal race, they may be met with in the districts of Miirzerschlag, Kindberg, Brack, Aflenz, Mariazell, and Leoben, to the numbi r of 47,584 head. The Murboden race, which is a branch of the Miirzthal breed^ 14 Report upon the Agricultural Features having a yellowish-white colour, especially on the head and neck, is dis- tributed to the number of 41,815 head in the districts of Judenburg, Knittel- feld, Zeiring, and Obdach. The natural breeding districts of both these races are the districts Frohnleiten, VVeiz, Gleisdorf, Birkfeld, Vorau, Friedberg, Hartberg, and PoUau, with a total of 77,144 head. The Miirzthal race is especially prized for its milk-giving properties, and its suitability for draught-purposes; but good sweet hay is necessary to their successful development. The following description is taken from the large collection of specimens exhibited by the Exhibition Committee of Leoben, in Styria, which comprised 90 head of the Miirzthal, Mariahof, Pinzgau, and Murboden Valley races. The colour varies in individuals from a light fawn to a dark grey, almost black. Each animal is pretty uniformly coloured over the body, invariably becoming darker on the cheeks, neck, lower parts of the sides (flanks) and thighs. The ears are light inside, and the muzzle is black, with a light-coloured ring of hair round it. There is a dark, or black, ring around the eyes ; the horns are short, pointed, up-turned, and black-tipped ; the stature is moderate, and the cows give the impression of being good milkers. As examples of the breed may also be mentioned a splendid pair of oxen exhibited by Herr St. Florian Stift, of St. Florian, Upper Austria. They were 6 and 6|^ years old respec- tively, were born in Styria, and were almost white in colour, with black-tipped horns, mottled muzzles, and with black ends to their tails. I also noticed a calf, bred in Lower Austria (Cat. No. 488), mouse-grey on the back, sides, and head, and white below. Each hair was half white and half grey, which gave a mixed, or " pepper-and-salt," effect. The term " dachs- grau " (badger-grey) is usually employed as descriptive in the catalogue. That considerable pains is taken in maintaining this breed pure is indicated by numerous notices in the catalogue of the long period during which the herd represented has been established. Thus, Herr Adalbert Bernauer, of Bruck, Styria, informs us he " has been employed for the last thirty years in improving the Miirzthaler race, and breeding his 60 head with a view to the production of a great quantity of milk." Although forming a conspicuous feature in the Austrian section, this race was entirely absent from both the German and Hungarian departments. Murhoden Race. — This is another Styrian race, and occupied a place in the Styrian Committee's exhibition. It is described invariably as light yellowish grey. They are handsome cattle, and might be introduced into parks with good effect. They closely resemble the Miirzthaler cattle, but are lighter in colour, and lower in stature. They have the same uniform colour, shading from light to dark. The bulls are of darker colour than the cows, and the calves show a greater abundance of hair of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 15 than is seen in the adult animals. The muzzle and skin around the eyes are black ; the horns are of moderate length, turned up, and black-tipped. All are long in the body, short in the hair, low in the chine, higher towards the tail and shoulders, low in the neck, light in the twist and buttocks, and fine in the limbs. The cows incline towards fawn, but may also be described as of a light grey, or light fawn, almost white on the top and sides, but shading to dark grey on the neck, shoulders, belly, and haunches. They are said to give from 10 to 15 quarts of milk daily. Mariahofer. — This was another Avell-represented race in the Austrian section, although absent from both the German and Hungarian departments. Fig. 4. — Mariahof Cow (Styria), exhibited hy Baron Robert von WaltersMrchen. The characteristic distinctions of the pure Mariahof breed of cattle are the following : — Bright flesh-red colour of the skin and mucous menabrane, cream- coloured muzzle, yellow, smooth horns, to some extent directed forwards ; bright-yellow hoofs ; yellowish-white or sienna- coloured hair ; light-coloured eyelids ; straight thin hind-legs in the cows ; the bulls are darker coloured on the head and neck, and have well-developed shoulders. The Mariahof breed had its origin in the district of Neumarkt, and is only partially characteristic of the district of Oberwbltz, where it numbers 8500 head. The natural breeding-districts of this race are the district of Vorlsberg, the neighbom-hood of Graz, Feldbach, Fehring, Furstenfeld, Kirchbach, "VVildon, Leibnitz, Arnfels, Eibeswald, Deutschlandsberg, Slainz, Eadkersburg (with Oberradkersburg), Luttenberg, Mureck, Pettau, Fridau, Eohitsch, Windisch- graz, Schbnstein, Franz, Oberburg, Cilli, St. Marein (Erlachstein), Tiiffer, and Gronobitz, with a total of 258,291 head of cattle. These cattle are native to Western Styria, and numerous 16 Report upon the Agricultural Features examples appeared from Mariahof and Neumarkt. They are noted as milking cattle, and also fatten readily. Examples shown by Princes Adolf and Adolf Joseph Schwarzenberg-, from their ■¥ast estates in Bohemia, representing specimens of their stud cattle, were white sweet-looking cows, with white muzzles, and of moderate size. The bull (No. 539) which accompanied them, although described also as " weiss," was inclined to cream colour, with a black muzzle. The principal group of these cattle formed part of the extensive exhibition by the Styrian Committee, already noticed in connection with Miirzthaler cattle. These formed a fine show of males and females. They are a uniformly- ^coloured race, often white, but sometimes inclining to lighter and darker degrees of fawn. The term " semmel-farbig " is generally used in the catalogue, and denotes the colour of a bun, or baked cake, called a " semmel." The horns and muzzle are generally white, but are occasionally dark. Some authorities state that the lighter-coloured cattle are the best, both as milkers and beef- producers. The heads are fine, and the bulls examined were almost Shorthorn-like in their docile and sweet mellowness of -expression. The withers, or shoulder-tops, are rather high, the chine a little low, belly somewhat paunchy, or hanging, and the ridge or set-on of the tail is again rather high. Josef Daum, of Wettmanstetten, near Preding, in Styria, showed a good, straight bull, free from these faults. The cows are pretty and feminine- looking ; show well for milk, and are quite uniform in colour, and may generally be said to be white, with a few instances of fawn •colour, or " semmel-farbig." I measured two noble oxen, exhibited by Ferdinand Kuchel- bacher, of Oberdorf, near Bruck, Styria. The largest (No. 244) Avas an eight years old Mariahof ox, in fair condition, but not fat ; born in Styria. He measured as follows : — ft. in. Girth behind shoulders 8 9 Length from shoulder to set-on of tail 6 Total length taken from poll to tail 8 3 Length from shoulder point to hook 4 11 Height at withers 5 8 Girth below knee 9^ Girth above knee 14 This was, I believe, the largest ox on the show-ground, and it girths more than any lean ox I ever heard of. Oherinntlialer Race. — This is a Tyrolese race, specimens of which were exhibited by Jakob Rimmel Oberhofen Telfs and H. Jakob Seisser Flaurling, both of the Tyrol. It is a small jnountain breed, of yellowish-grey colour, black on the nose, short in the horn, and the cows show well for milk. One bull, exhibited by the first-named gentleman, had a good deal of of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 17 loose skin under the throat. This race is said to be peculiar for rapid growth, and for giving a good quantity of milk. Montdfuner. — In the Vorarlberg there exists a distinct race, intermediate in size between the Swiss cattle and the Small Allgauer. Thus the average carcass weights of the three races have been stated to be as follows : — kilos. lbs. Swis.s cattle 3i'S .. .. 650 Montafnncr 2 Small All- a«©r 140 .... 2U5 This race was described from specimens exhibited by the Royal Agricultural Society of Mondsee, Upper Austria, and by Prince Schwarzenberg, of Postelberg, in Bohemia. The Society's cattle evidently belonged to a small race, and were of uniform dark brown colour, with a lighter streak along the spine ; muzzles dark, with a light ring around them, nice horns, and sweet-look- ing heads and faces. The bull was inclined towards black. Prince Schwarzenbergs cattle varied from black to a rich dark brown, a yellow brown, and a red brown. They were light coloured inside the ears, and around the muzzle, and each had a narrow lighter stripe along the spine. They were thickset, long, and low, witli l)lack noses. These cattle are principally esteemed for their milking properties. Fig. 5. — Montafun Coio (Vorarlherr/), exJiihifed hi/ J. A. Eltter von Tschavoll, of FeMJcirch. I'liis tribe, -wliicli is connected with the Swiss cattle, belongs to the heavy average group. The cows reach a live-weight of from 8 to 9 cwt., being lighter than the Swiss, aud heavier than the Allgauer. Middle-sized VOL. X. — S. S. C 18 Report upoji the Agricultural Features animals measure 5^ feet in length, about the same in girth, and 4 feet in height. The frame is moderately strong. The colour does not generally differ from that of the Swiss race; and the bright hairs round the muzzle and in the ears are equally characteristic, as also is the light-coloured stripe along the back. Brown and brownish-grey colours are predominant ; bright-grey hues are little esteemed, and white patches should not exist. The head is short and wide, the delicate horns are turned ujnvards, white at the base, and black at the points. The neck is of medium size, and bordered with a considerable dewlap, which commences even at the throat ; the crest of the tail is somewhat high, but strong, although the back is a little hollow ; as a rule, the rump is broad, and towering upwards, and the set-on of the fine tail is frequently high. Breast and belly are deep and wide. The limbs are short and good, par- ticularly well set on the hocks, and the sole of the foot is beautifully neat. The udder is large, and other indications also bespeak a considerable yield of milk. These animals are highly distinguished for their good temper; and their capabilities for draught and fattening purposes are satisfactory. The Montafuner race is principally found in the Montafun Valley, but also in the Bregenzer Forest and in the Bavarian AUgau. Zillerthaler. — These cattle take tlicir name from the valley of the Ziller, in the Tyrol, where they are esteemed for the rich- ness of their milk, their fattening properties, and their docility. They also are said to possess prepotency to a greater degree, when crossed with other races, than is the case with any other Austrian race except the Hungarian cattle ; and this exception is only made in favour of the females of the Hungarian breed. I noticed two crosses b.etween Zillerthaler and Duxer, which were black, with a little white on the . ridge, brown or black around the muzzle ; black on the muzzle ; breast more or less white. A pure-bred Zillerthaler, exhibited by Josef Egger, Ziller, Tyrol, was described in the catalogue as light red, broken with white. MM. Moll and Gayot, in their work on cattle, speak of " La rouge hrune du TyroV as being a well-known phrase in describing these cattle, and as being the characteristic colour. Other Tyrol and Austrian Races. — The Kemater race is Swiss- like, being of the same uniform brown tint. It is described in the catalogue as dark, or light grey. The animals noticed were bred by Josef Ehrensperger, Tyrol, who states that in breeding his herd of twenty-five the production of milk is his principal object. The Kitzbichler, a red and white race, exhibited by Josef Haas, Kitzbichl, Tyrol, is another milking race. Hans Heiss, of Brixen, Tyrol, showed a Sterzinger bull, not apparently a very good specimen, Ijut on the whole resembling the Oljerinn- thaler race, and with the same loose skin about the throat. The Tyrolese Native Race (larger breed), brown-red, with white head and white ridge, was illustrated by a three-year old, born in Ebbs, and exhibited by Peter Jager, jun. The Patznauer Race, exhibited by Alois Nikolaus Ischgl, Tyrol, is described as brown, grey, and black and white spotted. of t lie Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 19 The herd had been imported from the best type of the race In Switzerland. The Molt h( lie r Race was represented by specimens exhibited by Georg Lakner, of Altenmarkt, Sachsenburg-, Carinthia, among the Noric Alps ; also by animals exhibited by Andreas Meixner and other breeders, all from the same locality. The cattle were reddish-brown and white, red and white ; yellow-red and white ; red-striped, and brown with white stripes. The Lavanttludcr is another Carinthian race, fawn or " sem- mel-farbig," with a white head. The colour of this race seems to be characteristic and uniform. The Moravian Landsclilag, or, as Ave should say, the country cattle of Moravia, are a red-and-white race, which have found an improver in Leopold Hauptische, estate director at Tiln in Moravia, who maintains a herd of 200 head, Heinrich Heller, of Iglau, Moravia, exhibited a pair of oxen, one of which was remarkably good, the result of a cross between the Moravian and Bernese races. The ox was particularly good in his hind quarters, and was red, with a white forehead. Good working and fatting cattle are the results of this cross. Another cross worthy of attention was that effected between the Lower Austrian race and Milrzthaler males. All were good grey cattle, very similar in appearance to the Podolian race. The average yield of milk from 48 cows, constituting a herd of these cattle, has been 470 imperial gallons per head per annum for several years past. A breed, described as German, appeared from Moravia, which, however, bore no resemblance to those Dutch cattle which formed so large a proportion of the German section of the Exhi- bition. They are described in my notes as yellow, broken with white ; one having a white face, and the other not. Both had white or cream-coloured muzzles. The German cattle, from Kwassitz, Moravia, are again quite distinct, and vary from a light faw^n to a good dark red, and all have black or spotted noses. As the colour darkens, it appears more apt to become broken with white. Another example was light brown, shading to light "fawn and white, and one was finely dappled, self-coloured, and brown. The proprietor, Ritter von Proskowetz, rents under Count Thun, and is a spirited agri- culturist, whose estate I subsequently visited. He maintains a herd of 500 head of these cattle, which supply him with working oxen, and 120 to 150 head of feeding cattle annually. The younger animals exhibited were bred in Kwassitz, but the elder, calved from 1865 to 1867, had been imported from Croatia. The principal object in breeding these cattle is to obtain large strong bullocks for work. c 2 20 JReport vjwn the Agriadtnral Features Kfferland Race. — This race is named after E^er, a town and railway station on the frontier between Bohemia and Bavaria, and not far west from Carlsbad. The beautiful specimens exhi- bited by A. E. Ritter von Komers, of Mostau, near Prag, were of dark reddish-brown colour, and in form and hue not at all unlike Devons, Avith creamy noses, and yellow skin around the eyes. They are a small race, the average live weight being aljout 864 English pounds. The herd of which these were examples, numbers 50 cows, 2 bulls, and 2'6 young cattle, and the object of the breeder is to increase the size of the carcass and the quantity of the milk. 287 gallons of milk per head per annum is the ave- rage result now obtained. They are well suited to stall feeding, and are favourites with the sugar manufacturers and distillers around -Magdeburg, in Saxonv. Fig. 6. — EijerJand Cow (^Bohemia), exliih'ted hy A. E. Bitter vcn Komers, of Domain Mus'au. The Egerlaud cattle resemble the reddisli-brown Tj'rolese race in their general chliracters, and are said to be tlie result of the crossing of the Bohe- mian native race with Zillerthal bulls'. They have a nearly uniform dark reddish-brown colour ; compact, deep, and powerful frame; short, broad head,, bent sideways and forwards ; generally weak white horns, black at the tips ,- strong and pendulous neck, a broad breast, and the tail somewhat highly placed. What should be specially noticed are their general healthiness, and their contentedness with the quantity and the quality of their food. In consequence of these characteristics the Egerland cattle are very much esteemed for breeding purposes ; they are distinguished for unusual endurance,, and they are very much sought after for feeding purposes on account of their great capability for fattening and the excellent flavour of their meat. The cows experimented upon in Mostau yielded from 240 to 300 gallons of milk, for a consumption of 16 to 17 lbs. of hay per diem, and the best animals give as much as 420 gallons. The average weight of a full-grown ox can be placed at as much as 9i cwt., of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 21 and will fetch a price of from 20/. to 22L 10s. Cows scarcely reach an average weic^ht of 6^ cwt., hut will now readily fetch as much as from lijl. to 20?. Involuntarily one admires the beautiful and regularly formed horns of these animals, upon which the Egerlauder prides himself. He also assists to develop them wherever their growth is not naturally uniform. This is done by weights, which are connected by cords to rollers attached to the roof of the stables; these weights thus follow all the movements of the heads of the cattle. Clamps are also used, by means of which the horns, after having been softened with grease, are pressed either forwards, backwards, or sideways, as may be required. The Mdltr ( Moravimi) -Triihan Race, examples of which were shown hy the Land and Forest Society of ]Mahr-Triiban, were _<^ood-h)oking cattle, with somewhat Hereford-like markings, and the four cows looked like good milkers. The fat ox, No. 621, entered as a Steijrer, or Styrian ox, was grey and self-coloured, resembling the Podolian type. Schicarzenherg-Scheinfeld Race. — The Scheinfeld is an old Franken (Bavarian) race, which has long been Ijred on Prince 8chwarzenberg"s estates in Bohemia, and having had much pains bestowed upon it with considerable success, it has been named as above. The animals exhibited were of good form, of yellow- red colour without any white, creamy muzzles, and, on the whole, a sweet, milking race. Over 100 guineas each was asked for these cattle. Similar animals were exhibited under the name of Scheinfelder, from Lower Austria. Vorarlberr/ Native Race. — The Agricultural Society of Vorarl- berg sent four specimens of this race, which so clearly resembled the Mlirzthal cattle that no stranger could detect any difference. Pinzgau Race. — These cattle are found in Pinzgau and Salzburg. They give a smaller quantity of milk than either the Miirzthal or Mariahof cattle, but of a richer quality. The cattle are fine-boned and easily fattened, but are frequently disfigured by a hollow l^ack and a high set-on tail. The race was described from several examples. Herr Josef Kirchmayer, of Heitzing, near Vienna, showed a bull "just like a Hei'eford," with a red spot under one eye and a spot of white on the top of the shoulder — to all intents a Hereford, and with the same rounded buttocks and low, long form. A cow from the same herd was red, broken wdth white on the ridge of the back, set-on of tail, buttocks, breast, and belly, with horns tipped with l)lack and pointed. Prince Schwarzberg's Pinzgau cattle were very similar to each other, and were red on the head and body, loroken with white on the shoulders, chine, loins, ridge, tail, head, buttocks, and belly. The exhibition of the Styrian Committee comprised some good examples answering to the above description, some with white and some with red faces, and all, as is usual in this race, had white or cream-coloured muzzles. I noticed some large Pinzgau oxen, and took the measurements of two of the most remarkable. 22 Report upon the Agricultural Features No. 183 was a four-year-old working ox, exhibited by Jakob Dentinger, of Markt, Salzburg : — ft. in. His girth beliind shoulder was 7 9 Length from shoulder to set-on of tail 5 11 Total length from poll to set-on 8 2 Height at shoulder 5 5 Shoulder point to hook bone 4 4 Girth above knee 1 5 Girth below knee 10 Another example, exhiljited by the Brothers Koch, Ischl, Upper Austria, a seven-year-old ox, gave the following dimen- sions : — ft. in. Girth '.. ..8 Length from shoulder to set-on of tail 6 Total length 8 Girth below knee lOi Girth above knee 16 Shoulder point to hook bone 4 5 Height at shoulder 5 7 Fig. 7. — Pmzgau Cow (Salzburg, Tyrol), exhibited by the Hoyal Imperial Agricultural Society of Salzburg. The Pinzgau race is the result of a cross of the Simmenthal breed with the ancient domestic cattle of the country ; it is distributed throughout the whole of the Salzburg region, with the exception of a couple of small valleys of the Lungau, where the dappled mountain breed still exists. It is also "found in certain parts of the Tyrol, adjacent to the Pinzgau district, also in Upper Austria as far as Wels. It is the preponderating breed in the district of Enns and St. Florian, in a great part of Upper Bavaria, and it is even, though more si)arse]y, met with in Lower Bavaria. For breeding purposes these of the Vienna Exhihition, 1873. 23 cattle are exported in great numbers, particularly to Austria and Silesia ; and, for milking purposes, to Lower Austria, and especially Vienna, There are large and small varieties of the Pinzgau cattle, and their live weight is from 7 to 12 cwts. The characteristics of the race, besides their complete symmetry and their very pleasing appearance, are a red colour varying from light red to brownish red with many white patches on the withers, back, rump, tail, thighs, and the under part of the belly as far as the dewlap ; light rose-red or sienna-coloured muzzle, short head, brown forehead, the horns beautifully turned outwards and upwards, Avhite with black tips ; the neck somewhat slender, well- developed dewlap ; the body somewhat lengthy, barrel- shaped, but with a good depth, generally somewhat higher at the withers than at the rump ; finely developed udder with strong milk- veins ; fine, elastic, easily removable hide, and a moderately strong bony structure. The endurance of these cattle is excellent, and their contentedness with poor fare is notorious. The capacity for milk-production is considerable, and the quality of the milk, if not very high, Is excellent in comparison with the quality of their food. The Pinzgau cattle are easy to fatten, and their meat has a particularly fine grain and is very palatable, so that the Salzburg breed is a very desirable butcher's race.^^ Swiss Cattle. — Imported Swiss races are found upon many large estates in Austro-Hungarj, and also occur in Germany. They were largely represented in all the three sections into which the cattle classes were divided, namely, those devoted to Germany, Austria, and Hungary. The Swiss cattle are well known to be great milkers, but it has been stated on authority that efforts to import them into other countries, where both air and soil are so different from those of their native mountains, have signally failed. In spite of this statement, we find Swiss cattle, in one form or another, occupying a very prominent position in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Austria Proper, where they are subjected to confinement and receive cut fodder. There are many vari- eties of Swiss cattle, but it is sufficient for our purpose to state that they have been divided into two great groups, the first of which prevails in the East, and is known under the name of Swiss cattle. The other occupies the West of the country, and i5 illustrated by the Bernese and Fribourg races. All are good milkers, and although they fall short of the Dutch in quantity, yet their milk is richer. The Eastern Swiss cattle, the " Schwyzer " of the Germans, are self-coloured, varying from a light to a dark grey, shaded over the body with pleasing gradations of colour. A cow will give 4 gallons of milk per day, and exceptional cases have been reported in which 5i to G| gallons have been given. The race is found pure in the Cantons of Zug and Glaris. The Western cattle are quite distinct, owing to their being black and white, red and Avhite, pied, and spotted. I shall take the Schwyzer and its sub-varieties first. Swiss (Schici/zej-) Race. — A bull of this breed exhibited by Prince Franz Salm, of Svietla, Bohemia, was a handsome mouse- brown, with black muzzle bordered with light-coloured hair, and 24 Report upon the Agricultural Features black skin ai'ound the eyes. The horns were short and black ; ears of lighter colour, inside and out ; the colour also lighter on the poll, and the rest was mouse-brown ; the stature was low ; the carcass long and well-made. The herd,' of which this was a specimen, numbers 114 head, bred carefully from cattle imported from Canton Schwyz in 18G9 and 1872. The production of milking and fatting cattle, and the raising of useful work-oxen, ai'e the objects aimed at by the owner and breeder. The late Prince Schwarzenberg exliibited three pure-bred Swiss cattle, a two- year-old bull, and two two-year-old heifers. They were of uniform dark-brown colour, with a much lighter stripe along the spine, and the bull was almost black. Others were described as grey-brown, with white round the muzzle, a white streak down the spine, and light-coloured on the belly. Others entered as Schwyzers were black-and-white and red-and-white, but these evidently l^elonged to the section which comprises Bernese and Fribourg cattle. Prince Schaumberg-Lippe exhibited a cross-bred cow, Ijy a Dutch bull from a Swiss cow. This nobleman has made a series of interesting and practical experiments by crossing various races, with a view to increasing the yield of milk and giving a strong, good constitution to his cattle (see Bernese cattle). The animal in question was good, but had distinctly taken after the sire. Allgaucr Race. — This is a ver}- favourite milking race through- out the whole Empire, including Hungary, where it occurs on the large estates. It emanates from the East Swiss i-ace, and greatly resembles it. The Allgauer is only an indifferent worker and moderate fattener, its speciality being milk. It is found native in the north-east of Switzerland, where Baden, Bavaria, and Switzerland meet, on the shores of Constance Lake. The Vorarlberg Agricultural Society showed examples of this race, bred at Bregenz, on the eastern borders of this lake ; but specimens bred in the heart of the Empire and Hungary were not wanting. Prince Schwarzenberg's Allgauer cattle greatly resembled the Swiss and the Montafun races. Again, Baron Ludwig, Redl, exhibited Allgauer cows and bulls, bred at Baumgarten, near Kirchstetten, in Lower Austria, which gave rise to the remark that they were very like Montafuner and Swiss cattle. All were fine silver-grey and badger-grey, self-coloured cattle. The Duke of Coburg-Gotha, in Lower Austria, also showed some beautiful perfectly uniform mouse-grey cows and bulls, with dun noses and scarcely a shade of difference in the colouring. These cattle form part of a herd established in Lower Austria in 1820, which since then has been mixed with no other blood. The Arch- duke Albrecht, in Hungary, keeps many of these cows, and while of the Vicima Exhibitiun, 1S13. 25 visiting liis Imperial Higliness's estates at Ungariscli-Altenburg, and Bellje, I had additional opportunity of observing them. At the former estate, I was informed that the head must be short, and broad between the eyes, and taper to a fine, narrow muzzle, which should be black, Tiie eyes are black, the horns tipped with black, and there is a light ring of hair around the muzzle. The Altenburg AUgauers were giving 1^ gallons of milk daily. Bernese (^Siciss) Race. — The red-and-white or red-and-black Bernese formed one of the most conspicuous features of the Cattle-show. The Bernese cattle are great favourites in Austro- Hungary, and are esteemed both for milk and for fattening purposes. They may, in general terms, be said to resemble somewhat small and rather irregularly coloured Hereford cattle. Count La:rish-Monnich, of Freystadt, Austrian Silesia, exhibited a Bernese bull, with a white face and red body, broken with white on the sides and flanks. Prince Schwarzenberg's Bernese bull might have passed, both in colour and figure, for a fairly good Hereford, with a trifle too much white about him. Others were noticed similarly coloured, and it is needless to multiply examples. There is also a black-and-white Bernese, as was well illustrated by some fine specimens exhibited by Prince Schwarz- enberg, and a brindled black-and-red Bernese is also occasionally seen. In form, the Bernese are not unlike coarse Shorthorns. There is also a certain similarity between this race and the Pinzgau cattle. It will generally, however, be observed that while the Bernese have white faces, the Pinzgau have red faces. Like many races which have not been highly bred, the Bernese are large in the bone ; they are long and deep in the carcass, and have good broad hips. They are a little inclined to be low in the chine, high at the tail-head, and heavy-looking about the head. They attain to a large size, as may be shown from the following measurements, taken from No. G85, a seven-year-old ox bred and exhibited by Ritter von Theophil Ostaszevski, of Galicia : — ft. in. Girth behind shoulder 8 1 Length from shoulder to tail 6 Shoulder point to hook 4 2 Girth below knee 9 Girth above knee 14 Height at shoulders 5 4 Xos. 584-5 were a pair of very fine half-bred Bernese oxen. The former measured in ft. in. Girth .s 6 Length 5 10 Totallength from poll to tailhead 7 10 Height at shoulder 5 4 Girth below knee 10 Girth above knee 15 2Q Report upon the jhjricultural Features Many herds of Bernese cattle have been long established in the Empire. Thus the Duke of Coburg-Gotha's herd at Elenthal, Lower Austria, consisting of 80 head, was founded in 1820, and is maintained for the production of milk and meat. Count Larisch-Monnich's herd also, previously noticed, was formed from cattle imported forty years ago ; and, lastly, Prince Schaumburg-Lippe exhibited Bernese cattle from his herd at Post Skalitz, Nachod, in Bohemia, which had been bred there since 1820, and only refreshed by the importation of new blood in 1868 and 1871, when eight original cattle were introduced. The Bernese crosses were also interesting. His Excellence Count Karl Altham, Iglau, Moravia, showed some good examples of a cross between Dutch bulls and Bernese cows, which were particularly noticed. The production of flesh and milk has been the main object in view in the management of the Count's large herd of 1000 head. A cross between Bernese bulls and the native race, as also between East Friesland bulls and the same, has resulted in the formation of a constant breed of the character aimed at. Nos. 641-2 were black, pied, and mottled examples of a cross effected by Baron Simon Sina between Dutch bulls and Bernese cows. The dairy is at Rossitz, in Moravia, and com- prises two original Dutch bulls and thirty-six Bernese cows. The object of the breeder is the attainment of a high quantity and quality of milk. I also noticed and admired a first-rate fat ox, calved in 1868, and exhibited by the well-known Vienna butcher, Jacob Neu- mayer. It was from a Bernese cow, and by a Hungarian bull, and was of a rich fawn or almond colour. This remarkable ox measured in ft. in. Girth behind shoulder 8 6 Length from shoulder to tail head 5 10 Total length from poll to tail head 7 7 Height at shoulder 5 3 Shoulder point to hook 4 5 Girth above knee 13 Girth below knee 9 Prince Schaumburg-Lippe, of Post Skalitz, also exhibited crossed cattle, between Dutch bulls and Bernese cows, from his Moravian herd, which numbers 80 to 90 head, bred expressly for milk and constitution. The animals were certainly hand- some, and took after the red-and-white Bernese side. Kuldand Race. — The Kuhland race originated through a cross between Tyrolese cows and Bernese bulls, which was effected from 1780 to 1790. Up to 1830 the blood was renewed and invigorated by the use of Bernese sires bought at different times. The specimens from which this race is described were exhibited of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 27 bj Josef Maria and Emma Aresin, Partschendorf, in Moravia, and represented a herd of 200 head. Only about 20 head of cattle are annually fed, as there is a great demand for the young; stock for breeding purposes. The animals are bred with a view to the production of milk and beef. The cattle are of moderate size ; the horns are short ; muzzle, cream coloured ; face, white or mottled white and red ; crest, shoulder-tops, and chine white ; breast and belly, white ; legs, red or white ; ] sides, a fine red. The proportion of red and white varies in different animals, but the red sides with white above and below are characteristic. Fig. 8. — KuJiland Coiv (^Bloravia), exhibited hy the Agricidtiiral Association of Neutitschein. The so-called "Kuhland" is situated in north-western Moravia, on the flanks of the Carpathians, and embraces about 4 square miles. The Oder meanders through this district, and forms meadow-valleys ojDcn to the north, the climate and soil of which seem to invite cattle-breeding. It comprises several villages and manufacturing towns, the most important of which are Neutitschein and Fulnek. There can be very little doubt that the district takes its name from its suitability for cattle-breeding. Recently, the agricultural societies of the Kuhliiudchen * at Neutitschein and Fulnek, have substantially contributed to its pre-eminence, by encou- raging the improvement of the cattle of the small proprietor-farmers (peasant- farmers) ; while they have rendered possible the improvement of the whole race by disseminating the rational principles of breeding, and by judicious- selection and the suitable distribution of first-class bulls at reduced fees. The predominant colour is dappled red, or cherry-red with large white patches on the head, along the back, and on the belly. The horns are yellowish white at the roots and black at the tijDS. The forehead bears a strong tuft of crisped or curled hair. The Kuhland cattle have also the finest, softest, silky hair ; and the coat of the new-born calves is curly, while the bulls often retain this wavy hair on the head and neck throughout their life. Literally " the little cow-land." :28 Report upon the Afjricultural Features Altliougli only of the middle height, the KuhUind cattle must, nevertheless, be classed with the heaviei- races. The live weight of a cow may be taken at from 6 to 10 cwts. The average production of milk may be put at from 11 to 3 gallons per cow per diem, or even more. The average milking period may be taken at from 200 to 250 days, and cows are not rare which give in that time over 600 gallons of milk. According to the last agricultural census, in the year 1872, the "circuits" of Neutitschein, Fulnek, and Freiburg, of the Kuhland district, possessed 26,000 head of cattle, mostly belonging to the Kuhland breed ; this number being distributed over an area of not quite 4 square miles gives 1 head of 'Cattle to about 3 acres of agricultural land. The easy feeding qualities, the quick development of the body in the calves, their symmetrical form with broad and strong hind-quarters, their cheerful temperament without vice, their specially good milking qualities, both as regards quantity and quality, and, .finally, their constant capacity for transmission of their own qualities, are the best guarantees of the distinguished value of the animals of this race for breeding purposes. In connection with this breed I must notice the collection of cattle exhibited by the Neutitschein and Fulnek peasants Ironi Moravia. Eight peasants contributed each one animal of the Kuhland race to the exhibition. The animals were described as especially suitable for small holders of land, on account of their being useful in all three capacities of milk, flesh, and work. The spirited sugar manufacturing company, under the presi- dency of Baron Klein, to which I shall have to refer several times in the course of this report, exhibited four cross-bred animals from Keltschan, in Aloravia, the result of allying Short- horns and Kuhland cattle. One of these, a four-year-old cow, had every appearance of being a good milker, and the rest were handsome-looking cows, resembling very much their Shorthorn sire. Cheap flesh, high milking powers, and the greatest economy in food are the excellent objects sought for in making this cross. Josefine Biirnreither, of Schloss Linz, Lubenz, in Bohemia, also entered two yearlings bred between Shorthorns and Kuhland. Frihurg Race. — These cattle are allied to the Bernese breed. The only example exhibited was in the German section, and was a black spotted animal resembling the black variety of the Bernese race. A place is awarded it here, since it seems best to consider all the imported Swiss races under the Austrian .section. SitnmentJial ^ac^.— This race was fairly represented in the German, Austrian, and Hungarian sections. We first meet with it in the German exhibits, and find it to be a characteristic, well- xlefined race. Mathias Bichl, of Miesbach, Bavaria, showed a fine bull and cow. Both had white faces and yellow bodies 'broken with white. Twelve more specimens from Baden, all resembled in colours those first noticed. Returning to the Austrian section we must pause at Count Rudolf Enzenberg's of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 2» Simmenthal cows and calf, from Schvvaz in the Tyrol. Thej were representatives of a herd of some 36 head kept to cross with the Tyrolese cattle, and especially with the Unterinnthal, Zillerthal, and Pinzg-au races, and this it is stated is done with g^ood effect, The pure-bred Simmenthal cattle resembled those already described. The face is white, cheeks yellow, nose white, horns of moderate length, and the body light-red or yellow. Their attendant informed me that during the past- spring 9 Cows gave 5972 gallons of milk in March. 9 „ 5661 „ April. 9 „ 595f ' „ May. Dutch and Dutch Crosses. — The Dutch black-and-white cattle occurred in considerable numbers in the Austrian section. These animals have already received notice in the report on German cattle, and it only need now be mentioned that the Archduke Albrecht, who owns extensive estates in Silesia, as well as in Upper and Lower Hungary, contributed a large number of these cattle from Teschen and Saybuscli. The former herd of 530 was imported from Holland in 18G0, and is kept up by breeding and by continual importations of original Ijulls and heifers. The Saybusch herd of East Friesland cattle con- sists of 75 head, and in 1872 the average yield of milk per cow was 885 imperial gallons. These cattle were imported in 1837 from East Friesland, and have been kept up and refreshed by continued importation. Count Larisch-Mormich, whose extensive estates subsequentlv supplied an interesting study, is also an importer of Dutch bulls for crossing purposes. Baron Simon Sina has alreadv been referred to as the promoter of crossed Bernese and Dutch cattle (see Bernese), and Kuhland crosses with Dutch were also not wanting. The Shorthorn-Dutch from Keltschan in. [Moravia have also been noticed, and since other examples- might be given, it will be seen that Dutch cattle are greatly esteemed in the Austrian Empire both as a pure race and for crossing purposes. Hungarian Cattle. Many of the races exhibited in this section have already been' noticed. It comprised 285 catalogue entries, of which by far the o-reater number were of the celebrated Hungarian race. Short- horns were brought into special prominence l)y the Archduke Albrecht (see page 6), who showed a large number of pure and crossed cattle of this race. It is worthy of remark that the Archduke in this particular stands alone, and except upon 30 Report vpon the Af/ricidtiiral Features his estates, the Shorthorn is scarcely to be found in Hungary, Ayrshire cattle have been imported into Galicia by John Paget, Esq., of Gyeres near Torda, and they have been successfully crossed (see below) with Tyrolese cattle for the purpose of pro- ducing a race giving a large quantity and good quality of milk. No other British race either in a pure or crossed form appeared. The Buffalo also formed an extraordinary and interesting feature of this section of the exhibition. The various races of oxen sent from Hungary comprised — Head. Shorthorns and crosses 38 AUgauer * 15 Swiss 15 Bernese 3 Simmenthaler 11 Dutch 9 German 4 Styrian 5 Tyrolese 1 Sennyeyev 6 Ayrshire-Tyrolcse 5 Hungarian 14-i Buffaloes 18 Other cattle 11 285 Shorthorns and Shorthorn Crosses. — These were commented upon in the earlier pages of this report. They must not, however, be dismissed without offering a tribute of praise to the Arch- duke Albrecht, the most enterprising agriculturist in Hungary. Too much can scarcely be said with reference to the great suc- cesses this nobleman has achieved by crossing both cattle and sheep with the best English blood. The exhibits at Vienna were only a sample of very large numbers of animals similarly bred, which may be seen at Ungarisch-Altenburg and Bellye. Even better cattle than were exhibited are to be seen on those estates, and the stalls and court-yards in which they are accom- modated rival and excel anything that can be witnessed in this country. It remains for us to consider at some little length the bovine races not yet noticed. Ayrshirc-Ti/rol Cross,- — Mr. J. Paget, of Gyeres, near Torda, Galicia, exhibited five examples of this cross. The object sought for in allying these two races was to produce a moderate- sized animal giving a good yield of first-rate milk. The cattle exhibited were the result of the second cross, and beyond this it is not considered advisable to go, as the skin would be apt to become too thin to resist the attacks of flies. It is proposed to breed them for the future inter se. of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 31 Hungarian Race. — The Hungarians are justly proud of tlicir oxen. They are used as working cattle over the whole Empire, and at present there is little indication of their Ijeing superseded either by horses or steam power. It is no uncommon sight to see a team of oxen yoked to a plough, and driven by the plough- man entirely by the voice and without any assistance either from reins or driver. Judges did not consider the Hungarian ox to be well represented at Vienna, and I certainly saw much finer examples while travelling through the country. Naturalists agree in considering the Hungarian ox as the best living representative of one at least of the original progenitors of our domestic cattle. These it is believed owe their origin to three distinct types, viz.. Bos j)rimigcnius, B. longifrons, and B.fron- tosus. The two last are extinct as wild races, and are solely repre- sented by certain types of domesticated cattle. Bos primigcnius still exists in a semi-wild state in Chillingham Park, and is closely allied to both the Pembroke cattle of South Wales, and the beautiful little Devons. The Hungarian and Podolian oxen also are considered to be more or less pure representatives of the Primigenius type. I had the opportunity of seeing large numbers of these handsome cattle. They are white with a shading of grey on the neck, flanks, and buttocks. The ear is dark-shaded inside, the horns are very long and wide-spreading and tipped with black ; the muzzle, skin around the eye, the eye itself, and the feet, are all black. An eight years old ox, exhi- bited by Neumann, of Arad(Cat. No. 941), measured 6 ft. 11 in. between the tips of his horns, and one horn measured 3 ft. 7 in. in length ! The stature of these cattle will be best illustrated by two or three measurements actually taken on the ground. JNIessrs. Kuffner and Gutman, large and enterprising sugar manufacturers, at Dioszegh, Pressburg, showed some fine examples of fat Hungarian oxen. These were scarcely " thick fat," according to English ideas of fatness, but were "good," albeit a little hard to the touch. No. 885, an eight years old bullock, measured in girth behind the shoulder 7 ft. 10 in. No. 886, which with the last made up the customary " pair of oxen," measured in ft. in, , Girtli 7 9 From shoulder poiut to hook bone 4 6 Height at shoulder 4 63 Girth above knee 13 Girth below knee 82 Another example, six years old, exhibited by the same firm, gave the following measurements : — 32 He-port upon the Agricvltiiral Features ft. in. Girth ' .. 1 'Z Length from shoulder to rump 5 4 Total length from poll to rump 6 4 Shoulder point to hook .. .. 4 Si Height at shoulder 4 9 Girth above knee 13 Girth below knee 82 The finest race of Hungarian cattle is that to be seen at the Imperial Estate of Mezohegjes, in Lower Hungary, where a fine breeding herd of the Csaky breed is maintained. Splendid cattle are also to be seen on the shores of the Flatten See, upon the estates of Count Festetics. The Transjlvanian closely re- sembles the Hungarian ox, but has more spreading horns. Mr. Paget, who has resided many years in Transylvania, drew my attention to this point in the case of No. 788, a fine ox described as Hungarian-Transylvanian. This ox possessed wide-spreading horns characteristic of his Transylvanian parent, whereas tlie true Hungarian ox carries his horns more up- rightly. The Hungarian ox is also higher at tlie withers, lower behind, and not so straight in the back as the Transvlvanian ox, and has a less quiet eye. Mr. Paget informs me that the Transylvanian ox is allowed on all hands to be a first-rate animal for draught, and that his pace is equal to that of a horse. It is also acknowledged to be better for fattening and milking than the true Hungarian race. Mr. Paget at the same time acknowledged that the fault of these cattle is, that they give too little milk and hold it for only a short time. Four oxen bred between these two rival but very similar races, exhibited by Count Stubenberg, of Szekelyhid, Hungary (No. 8(54), were pointed out as examples of fast Hungarian cattle. The back was very straight, the legs strong, and the whole animal apparently well fitted for draught. They were not quite so large as the ordinary Hungarian ox, but are said to bear changes of temperature well. A large number of the Transvlvanian young cattle are purchased by Hungarians for draught. Oxen grow scarcer in Hungary every year, f)wing to the practice of breaking up tlie meadows and pastures, and no estates were visited where they lireed a surplus quantity — all and more are required for work. The Gulya or herd roams on the wooded pastures by the banks of the Danube, or on the extensive plains where the land is still in the condition of pasture. . The cows calve fnjm January to July, and hide their offspring for five or six weeks in the woods among bushes or in some secluded place. The young calf is of dark tawny or fawn colour at first,, but irradually changes to a "rev creamy colour, and finally to of tfie Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 33 the shaded white peculiar to the race. They suck for four or five months, after which the cow dries naturally. They are slow of growth, and under general management do not attain their full size until six years old, at which time they go first to work. They continue at work from seven to nine years ; and, in fact, like the Merino wether sheep, are finally only culled on account of age. The cow calves and young bulls are herded separately on different parts of the pasture, and the breeding stock (Gulya) also roams alone. Each herd is constantly attended (for here are no fences) by their Gulyas (pronounced Goolyash) or herdsmen. The cows drop their first calf at about four years old. The herds are in the woods and pastures summer and winter, and may be almost spoken of as wild. It is not safe for a stranger to approach them, and such a proceeding would be very rash without the protection of the Gulyas. The ox is undoubtedly unrivalled for hardihood, speed, strength, and durability. He is capable of subsisting and working upon a worse quality of fodder than any other race. Poor pasturage in summer, and Indian corn straw with a little barley straw and hay in winter, are all that he requires ; and no corn or artificial food is added, except for a short time in spring during the sowing season. They work generally in Hungary with a double yoke, four in a plough, and obey the word of command, turning in at the end of the furrow often without rein or driver. Large numbers of Hungarian and Transylvanian oxen are bought by the neighbouring countries of Prussia, Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia on account of their fine working qualities, and they are in especial demand by the large proprietors and sugar manufacturers. The custom is to work the land in spring and autumn, and to fatten the surplus oxen during the winter. The cows are seldom abundant milkers, but the milk is of rich quality. They milk for eight months, and are dry for four months. An ox under seven years old is called a Tino ox. I cannot dismiss the Hungarian ox without referring to the interesting exhibition of bulls, cows, and oxen of this race from Prince Esterhazy's estate of Kapuvar, now on lease.* These Avere enclosed in a space at some little distance from the sheds, and were exhibited in true national style. The cattle represented a herd of 1200 head which originated from the Foldsziget herd. These cattle are, as is always the case with a Gulya or breeding stock, continually in the open air during summer and winter. The herdsman appeared in the show-yard in his best costume, and when mounted on his horse, with Hungarian saddle and accoutrements, his fine scarlet embroidered cloak thrown over * See sketch iu ' Elustrated London News,' October, 1873. VOL. X. — S. S. D 34 Report iipon the Agricultural Features him, and with his lontj whip in hand, he looked every inch a Magyar. There was also a native waggon of hay to which four oxen were yoked, attended by a Hungarian teamsman and two Hungarian watch-dogs. The Buffalo. Examples of this singular species of the Bovida or oxen, were exhibited by the Agricultural College of Keszthely, Count Emerich Miko, Josef Schuster, and other gentlemen. The accompanying sketch of a bull * will aid the following descrip- tion in giving an idea of this animal. The colour is completely black, hair and skin, hoofs and horns, all partaking of this sable hue. The limbs are short and thick ; the body massive ; the head large ; the forehead arched and narrow ; the muzzle large and black ; horns low placed, triangular at base, furrowed across, and directed backwards and downwards, finally turning upwards towards the point. The hair is scattered somewhat thinly over the body in the full-grown animal, although the calves are well covered. The buffalo {Bos Bubalus) must not be confused with the bisons (Bos Bison and Bos Americamis^, which are easily dis- tinguished by their highly developed dorsal vertebrae, giving them an extraordinary height at the withers, and also by the long hair which covers the anterior portions of their bodies. Fig. 9. — European Buffalo Bull. The buffalo is indigenous to Asia, and is also found in Africa,, as in Lower Abyssinia, and north of the Cape of Good Hope. It was introduced into Hungary by Attila (433-453), and * ' Histoire Naturelle dea Mammiferes,' par M. Geoifray St. Hilaire et M^ Frederick Cuvier, tome iv., pi. 417 (Butfle d'ltalie). of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 35 into Italy by King Agilulf (591-GlG). It was carried into France in the twelfth century, although it never came into general use. In 1807 the Emperor Napoleon I, introduced the buffalo in the hope it might prove useful upon the " landes " of the west. This idea was not well carried out in those disturbed times. The animals were neglected and left to themselves, and at last, becoming almost wild, would speedily have been extir- pated by fire-arms had not M. Lalane interfered in time to save a few of them. Upon the low lands on both sides of the Danube and Theis in Lower Hungary, in Transylvania, in Greece, in Piedmont, in Italy, and in Spain, the buffalo is found and esteemed as an animal of draught. In 1870 there were 58,310 in Transylvania, 14,568 in Hungary, 263 in Slavonia and Croatia, and 12 in the military boundaries ; making altogether in the Hungarian dominion 73,153 head. " Water and again water," is the life element of the buffalo. Where he cannot bathe for several hours dailv, the water covering him entirely, with the exception of his nostrils, he does not thrive. This is no doubt a principal reason why the number of these animals has progressively diminished in the Banat since the regulation of the river Theis. He is esteemed most in fenny and humid districts, such as abound in South Hungary, where ordinary cattle are subject to diseases to a greater extent than upon higher grounds. The buffalo possesses two excellent qualities : he is immensely strong, and his wants are easily satisfied. The strength of a pair of buffaloes is considered equal to that of four horses or six oxen. To draw a Hungarian waggon loaded with hay out of the mire is a work for which a pair of buffaloes is specially adapted. If, however, they run away in full gallop with their load, or attached to the plough, to cool themselves in some river or pool, it is no matter of surprise. They are quite satisfied with the roughest fodder, that even poorly kept oxen refuse, and the cow will give remarkably good milk upon even this coarse fare. Buffalo milk is an ingredient in the Tran- sylvanian national dish (of Indian corn, groats and buffalo- milk) which cannot be dispensed with upon all great occa- sions. Buffalo cream makes good butter when sour milk is first added, a precaution which must not be neglected, since, without it, the cream contains such an excess of fat that butter is not easily made. Mr. Paget informs me that buffaloes are cele- brated for giving a richer milk than is yielded by any other animal. In South Hungary and Transylvania no gentleman considers his breakfast complete without buffalo milk with his coffee. The cow is capricious in letting down her milk when offended. The largest milkers give 6 quarts per day, but 2 or 3 quarts is a more ordinary quantitv. The flesh is " stringy," D 2 36 Report upon the Agricultural Features and gives off a mossy odour which spreads over the whole house, and also affects the milk. For this reason buffalo beef is seldom used, although the veal is considered good. The skin makes good leather. The buffalo has not a sweet temper, and when roused his anger knows no bounds. With his convex forehead he can inflict a terrible blow, levelling his antagonist to the earth, and he then treads round and round upon him like a mad creature. With necessary food and good treatment he is quiet and good tempered, so much so that a herd of them can be managed by a boy, and their quiet and dignified demeanour at the Vienna Exhibition, where they were constantly surrounded by an admiring crowd, may be taken as evidence of their gene- ral placidity. They may he managed by kindness, but the rod of correction they cannot bear. Herr Josef Schuster, of Her- mannstadt, already referred to, exhibited two Albino buffaloes which attracted much attention. Sheep. Above 1500 sheep wei-e entered for competition, and com- paratively few failed to appear. Of these entries England con- tributed 135 ; France, 69 ; Italy, 22 ; Germany, 377 ; Austria, 467 ; and Hungary, 431. Russia was scarcely represented in this or in any other section of the Cattle-sliow. Several of the best English races were present, and Italy contributed some characteristic and peculiar sheep, presently to be described. W ith these exceptions, as well as that of some hardy mountain sheep from Transylvania, and Duke Coburg Gotha's Zackel sheep, there were nothing but Merinos. Attempts have been made by some enterprising noblemen to cross the Merino with English sheep, and the result has certainly been encouraging. Such cases, however, are rare ; and, as in the showyard so throughout the entire Empire, the Merino sheep is dominant and almost universal. They are in the hands of large proprietors, Avho breed them with great care, the peasants as a rule restrict- ing their attention to cattle, swine, goats, and horses. The show of these sheep was probably the finest ever held, and offered a splendid opportunity for studying the various differences which exist under the generic name Merino. England. The English sheep offered a strange contrast to the files of Merinos which constituted by far the greater part of the show. It is important to remark that Merinos have ceased to be remunerative ; and throughout whole regions of the northern part of the Empire, sheep are being, or have been, given up. of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 37 I shall presently give some account of Merino sheep, but it is as well to state at once that they are essentially a wool race, while the English races are excellent both for flesh and wool. We cannot rival the Merino in quality of wool, but when weight of fleece is taken into account, we need not fear competing with the finest super-super-electoral Merinos. The rapid rise in the price of meat has forced upon the Austrian and Hungarian agriculturists the need of attention to flesh as well as fleece. From 1855-60 beef was 3^^/. to M. per English pound, and mutton od. to 3^d. From 1860-70 beef was M. to b^d., and mutton 2|(/. to 3^fZ. ; Avhile in 1873 beef has been b^d. to 7d.y and mutton S^d. to 4|c?. These figures do much towards explaining the interest excited by the appearance of English Cotswolds, Lincolns, Southdowns, Sec. They were evidently regarded as novelties and curiosities by the public, while they were readily purchased by the agents of the great pi'oprietors. The objection has been urged that English sheep will not stand the heat of the southern portions of the Empire, but will suffer from hlut-schlag, i.e. apoplexy or sun-stroke. This danger does not seem, however, to be imminent in a country where the universal practice is to house sheep during the hot hours ot the day, neither does it seem to apply to crosses so much as to purely-bred English sheep. I hope in the course of this and the succeeding report to strengthen by facts the statement that a fine market is open to breeders of English sheep in Austro- Hungary. Mr. Russell Swanwick, of the Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester, showed six rams and as many ewes of the Cotswold race. Mr. Swanwick sold all his sheep but one, and writes as follows : — " The chief purchasers of my sheep were Count Braniski of Russia, Baron Magnus, Saxony ; Count Vron- driavtziff of South Russia, Count Rudolf of the Tyrol, and Mr. Paget of Transylvania. Others went to North Russia. The highest prices were 30Z. to 34/. Everybody expressed themselves astonished with the lustre of the wool, which they said was greater than that of any other long-woolled sheep. Count Braniski and Baron Magnus were the chief purchasers of the pigs." Lord Sondes, of Elmham Hall, Norfolk, and his agent Mr. Fulcher, were both exhibitors of Southdowns and Shrop- shires respectively. Mr. Fulcher writes, " Lord Sondes's South- downs were sold to buyers in Hungary, Galicia, Russia, and North Germany. My rams were sold to buyers in Bohemia, Hungary, Transylvania, Hanover, Wurzburg in Bavaria, and North Germany. The highest priced animal, a Southdown ram» was sold for 50Z. to Herr von Gyiotti, a Hungarian landowner." Lord Walsingham (represented by Mr. Woods) showed South- 38 Report upon the Agricultural Features downs. " The principal purchasers of our rams," writes Mr. Woods, " were the Archduke Albrecht for his estates in Austria ; Count Fries, Czernahora, Moravia ; Baron Magnus, Drehsa, Saxonj ; Herr Stahlschmidt, near Halle, Saxonj ; and Jean de Couriss, Couressonov, Russia." Lord Chesham has favoured me with a letter, froin which I extract the following : " Unfortunately I only took three rams and six ewes, all shearlings. They obtained First Medal in each class, which was all they could do, as the authorities would not allow the same exhibitor to take a Second Medal, having obtained a First. My object in taking them was to introduce the breed, and I therefore did not demand such high prices as I have made in England. The six ewes and one ram I sold to Baron de Rothschild, to go to his estate at Wetchamf, in Prussia, for 100/. (English money). The other two rams I sold to the Duo de Coigny for 40/. each ; he would also have bought ten ewes, if they had been there, and I am sure I could have sold several more, both rams and ewes. I think they left such a favourable impression upon the minds of the breeders that I shall probably receive several orders both for rams and ewes. There is in the minds of some breeders a great reluctance to cross the Shropshire with the Merino, as they are afraid of spoiling their wool. Every one who is not prejudiced as to the infallible quality of the jVIerino wool, is very strongly of opinion that a cross would do no harm to the wool, and would very much improve the mutton, which is not worth anytliing in the Merino." The Messrs. Russell of Horton Court, Kent, showed Hampshire Downs and Kentish Long-wools, and inform me by letter that most of their sheep went into Hungary and some into Russia, while a few remained in Austria or found purchasers in Prussia. Mr. Dudding, of Panton House, appeared with Lincolns, and thus writes : " I got them all sold, and the highest price was 40 guineas. Some went into Germany with the idea of raising pure-bred Lincolns there ; others into Hungary and Italy for crossing purposes." Mr. Treadwell, Upper Winchendon, showed Oxford Down sheep. The English exhibitors were each and all rewarded with medals. Competition could scarcely be said to exist, for honours were awarded to all who showed animals up to a certain standard of merit. Italy. The Bergamask race was the only one represented from Italy. It is a middle-woolled sheep of remarkable appearance, white in face and fleece, standing high on its legs. The ears of the Vienna Exhibition^ 1873. 39 Fig. 10. — Head of Bergamask Slieej). are long and pendulous, and the head is heavy, giving a some- what ludicrous appearance. The accompanying sketch of a head was taken of a specimen from Cosenza. The body is ■correspondingly quaint. Merino Sheep. It is impossible to report upon the Merino sheep ex- hibited at Vienna Avithout first offering a few intro- •ductory remarks upon the character and qualities ol this wide-spread and im- portant race. I may here remark that in inspecting the sheep stock I was much indebted to the knowledge of my guide and interpreter, Mr. G. T. Yull, who, having acted as a practical sheep inspector in Hungary, was well qualified to give an opinion upon the Fig. 11. — Merino Bam, bred by Herr Hermann Kannenberg, of Gerbin, near Kosternitz, in Pomerania. relative merits of the animals exhibited. The best Merino Ijlood appears to have been imported into Austria and Hungary by the Empress Maria Theresa, and many flocks still claim 40 Report upon the Agricultural Features to be directly descended from sheep so introduced. The utmost care has been taken in breedincr these sheep, and their classifica- tion according to quality of wool has become a distinct profession. The Merino sheep have been divided into Rambouillet, Negretti, and Electoral ; and these principal varieties when crossed have given rise to Rambouillet-Negretti, Electoral- Negretti, &c. Such was the classification adopted in the catalogue, a classification which, except in the case of the Rambouillet, scarcely seemed to be borne out by any observable differences between the sheep thus designated. Thus, the Czilchert and Hunyady sheep were entered as Negretti, although they were to all intents fine Electoral Merinos of remarkably high quality. The ' Wiener Landwirthschaftliche Zeitung ' thus comments upon this point : " The catalogue gave us the usual names Electoral, Electoral-Negretti, «Scc., but we found that the names were often wrongly applied, referring, as they truly did, to the origin rather than to the present character of the flocks thus described. We could only discern two principles or ideas — the production of cloth-wool and combing-wool. The breeder works for one or the other, and aims at different degrees of fineness, and for the production of flesh. But the differ- ence between Electoral and Negretti sheep, which existed fifty years ago, is entirely lost. It would be useless for us to look for, and impossible to find in the herds now called pure Electoral, the spindle legs, flat ribs, bald-headed, badly covered animals with excessively fine super-electoral wool, once characteristic of this section. Equally difficult is it to find the Negretti type, with its heavy fat wools which ten or twenty years ago was looked to as a means of improving flocks, although now-a-days very seldom found. The present cloth-wool Merino is well and strongly built, the head is of middle length and. pretty broad ; the neck short and fleshy, the shoulders and rumps wide ; back straight, and the body round. The feet are firmly placed and well set. The wool is usually from Electoral to Prima fineness, and is soft, of middle length, with mild and not too rich fat. The animals have thickly-set wool, and are- remarkably well covered, especially upon the belly, feet, and head. The extreme fashion for skin wrinkles has also happily been moderated." This description of a good cloth-wool Merino, represents the greater number of those sent for exhibition fronii Austria and Hungary ; and, whether they originally sprung from pure Electoral or Negretti flocks, or were otherwise bred, they may be rightly enough named Electoral-Negretti. The Ramhouillct Merino is of French origin, and certainly deserves a distinct notice. These sheep have their head-quarters at the Government sheep-stable of Rambouillet, and it was from. of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 41 thence that the specimens of the pure breed contributed bj France Avere sent. The Rambouillet element was strong in the German section, but was entirely absent from the Austrian, and nearl}' so from the Hungarian section. These sheep are large and well formed, and possess superior fattening qualities when compared with other Merino races. The skin is usually free from those large folds of skin, so characteristic of the Electoral and Negretti. The wool is long, fine, thickly set, and strong. These various sub-varieties of the Merino race are almost exclusively maintained for the purpose of producing wool. Accordingly we find all extensive flocks divided into several sec- tions differing from each other in the fineness or quality of their fleeces. A large flock is divided as follows : (1) Prima ; (2) Super Prima ; (3) Elector ; (4) Super-Elector ; (5) Super-super-Elector. I am informed that in Saxony, the distinction is even carried higher, and that they make a " Super-super-super-Elector " grade. They also employ the term secunda, to represent a degree of coarseness below prima, making in all 7 degrees of fineness. The finest-woolled sheep are drafted into the stud or " pepinier "^ flock, and this promotion is determined by the quality of the wool rather than by form or flesh. Every April the sheep are classed according to the fineness, length, and thick growth of the wool, and the following points are considered important : — Strength of fibre. This is indicated by the amount of grease in the wool — plenty of fat or grease indicating strength. The fat exists in three forms. Soft or liquid, which again may be a rich yellow or white ; middle fat, yellow and white ; and lastly, broken stiff fat, yellow and white. Of these, the oily or liquid fat is considered best in Germany, while in Hungary, the middle fat is more suitable to the climate. Fineness. The wool should be equally fine over the whole- body, but a coarser quality may j'ig. 12.— Grim'ps of the Fibre of be expected on the top of the Merino-wool. shoulders and rump, and a weaker ^ quality on the belly. It is with S regard to fineness that the above | classification of Prima, Elector, \ 6cc., is made. The finest samples | of wool are usually not more than < two finger-breadths in length. > Curl. This is important, and | refers to the minute bends or S crimps which are seen in each I hair ; a long, straight, plain \ ' wave in the fibre, as in B, Fig. 12, A B C is not liked, neither is an abrupt close wave which folds back upon 42 Report upon the Agricultural Features itself, as in C. The best and most approved curl, that which gives spring and elasticity as well as preserves the strength of the wool, may be described as a minute and regular serration, and is shown by the line marked A. Thickness. This quality refers to the thickness of the wool upon the skin, and is closely connected with the presence of those wrinkles so characteristic of the Merino sheep. Large folds of skin appear about the neck, and just above the tail- (making "the rose"), in the true Merino, and especially in the rams. Young lambs, however, show the same peculiarity ; and while the wool is short, similar but smaller wrinkles are ob- servable over the entire body. The whole skin is completely furrowed with these wrinkles, and consequently, the wool- bearing surlVice is rendered very large. It is considered a point of excellence in Austria when these wrinkles are numerous, as they give a better " closure " to the fleece ; but in Saxony, I am informed, a different taste prevails. The wool on the summit of the folds seen about the neck is a little coarse, l)ut as the area is small, this is not allowed to be a fault — only a character. Fleischmann, as quoted by C. H. Macknight and Dr. H. Madden, states that a pure Merino sheep will carry from 40,000 to 48,000 wool fibres on a single square inch of skin. Closure of stubble or jleece. The " closure " of the stubble or outer surface of the fleece is very important, for if the fleece is loose and open, dust and dirt find their way into the wool. The closure is efltected by the abundance of the fat which rises to the surface of the fleece, and there mats the ends of the wool-fibres together, forming an almost continuous protec- tion to the fine wool beneath. This is further added to by dust which adheres to the grease and makes that firm black limit to the fleece always observable in the Merino. The hand passes over the stubble as over a sort of scale armour, -r,. ,., ci .• r ^i^>^ English lbs., and a ewe, 160i^ English lbs. The flock numbers at present 500 head. " The local circumstances of a third farm-yard allowed us to constitute a flesh-sheep* of middle weight with advantage. To obtain this we again had recourse to the principle of crossing. * ' Fleisch-shafe,' or flesh-sheep, is a term commonly" applied in Germany to breeds -which are more adapted to the production of flesh tlian of wool. It arises from the iact that the Merino sheep is bred and kept almost entirely for its wnr 1, Jience our heavy fattening sheep are spoken of as flesh-sheep, in Lontradistinttiin to wool-sheep. E 2 52 Beport upon the Ar/ricidtural Features " We had at our disposal a stock of Merino ewes, wliich we- paired with Southdown rams from the flocks of Lord VValsing-- liam, Lord Sondes, and Zoppritz. The results of this cross were partly half-blood and partly three-fourth Southdown blood. The flock thus commenced possesses good feeding qualities through the Southdown blood, and is well suited for middle quality of land. For rich land and good keep the Cotswold- Merinos, and, in a still higher degree, the Keltschan stock are. the best. The last are especially recommended for the circum- stances of the sugar makers. They are unequalled either by the pure Southdown, of which we hold a stock of 100 breeding-ewes, of the best blood, or even by the Oxford-down. " We look for, and find the profit of our breed of flesh-sheep in the sale of our 12-14-months-old fat animals. Also in the price for the coml>-wool produced, which we have sold at an average, over all our improved flocks, of l.f. 9^r/. per lb. The shearing weight is, in the case of Cotswold-Merino, 4^^ English lbs. The Keltschan stock and the Southdown-Merinos produce three pounds per head." Keltschan Post and Telegraph Station is in Moravia, near the North Railway Station, Bisenz, The Archduke Albrecht has been mentioned as a breeder of Southdown-Merinos. Specimens were exhibited from Teschen, Austrian Silesia. They represented a flock of 750 Southdown- Merinos and 650 Southdown-Eerki ewes, and a small stud flock of Southdowns. The production of meat and strong wool are the objects sought after. The wool is middle-fine, and was sold in 1872 at 2s. \\d. per lb. The weight per fleece is reported at ?>\ English lbs. for one-shear sheep, and 8 lbs. per head for two- shear sheep. The Southdowns were purchased in England in 1868-70. The Saybusch flock consists of 200 head, bi'ed be- tween native sheep and Southdowns. The objects aimed at are the production of meat, and an increased weight of wool of coarser quality, for combing purposes. The ewes give close upon 7^ lbs. and the rams 13^ lbs. per head average. This flock was constituted in 1867. It seems scarcely necessary to enter into a minute criticism of the Austrian Merino flocks after havixig devoted some pains and space to this part of the subject under the head of Germany. The general character of the wool was much the same, except that the long Rambouillet quality was absent. With reference to this famous variety of the Merino sheep, and in connection with what has already been advanced, it is only fair to state that the Rambouillet sheep have many points to recommend them for crossing purposes. In Hungary it was found that the Rambouillet cross, although giving a large carcass, caused an open, loose character of wool. of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 53 scarcely calculated to withstand the drying winds, hot sun, and dust of that country. The experiment was made by the late yir. G. B. Smallbones, on his farm at Deutsch-Kreutz, in 1855, but was not successful. As the price of mutton increases, the wool question ceases to be all-important ; and further, taking the whole extent of the vast Austro-Hungarian Empire, it is reason- able to suppose that the Rambouillet, as well as Downs and Cots- wold, may be employed to give weight of carcass and fleece. The following instances of first-rate Alerino flocks may be useful ■as indicating the varving weights and value of wool oljtained : — Count Franz von Bellegarde, of Gross-Herrlitz, in Austrian -Silesia, showed some incomparably fine-woolled .sheep. The average clips of fine-cloth wool over the entire flock of 599 is 2^ to 3 English pounds. Prince Schaumburg-Lippe, Post- Stalitz, Bohemia, exhibited comb-wool Merinos. These sheep are of compact form, and the wool is comparatively long, and not unlike Rambouillet qualitv. The prima wool reaches 5 to 7 inches in length, and 14^ English lbs. is said to be the average clip of unwashed wool over 800 head. This loses 58 per cent, of its weight in factory washing. His Excellency Count Thun-Hohenstein, of Peruc, Bohemia, exhibited high- fine Merino sheep, the average clip of which was stated to be 4 English pounds of washed wool. The cull ewes are either sold or crossed with Southdown rams, giving the half-breds before noticed. Baron Albert von Klein, of Hemmersdorf, Austrian Silesia, the President of the Keltschan Sugar Company, is a well-known promoter of agricultural improvement and scien- tific breeding of animals. As representing the oldest existing flock in the Empire, the Baron's Electoral ^lerinos are deserving of special notice. The original flock was brought direct from Spain in 1770, and was bred without admixture of foreign Ijlood till 1864. In 18G5, two rams were introduced from the Oschatz flock, which brought with them a longer and more compact carcass. Josef Maria, and Emma Aresin, of Partschendorf, and Erbsedl- nitz. Standing, Moravia, were exhibitors of " Original-Merino- Negretti " sheep, which, like those just noticed, claim a direct i^panish descent, as may be proved by documents. It is there- fore, say the owners, to be considered as belonging to the j\ egretti or Infantado stock. The average clip of o^ English lbs. per head is high rather than low, as it includes a large number of Avinter and summer lambs, is of very high quality, and was weighed after warm washing. The wool has been sold as high as 245^. per centner, or above 4^. per English lb. On account •of the high character of both fleece and carcass, sheep from this flock are sold into Australia and South America, as well as into the neighbouring countries of Prussia, Poland, and Russia. 54 Report vpon the Af/ri cultural Features This notice of the Austrian sheep classes will be well closed by a reference to the Zackel sheep, exhiljited by Baron Jakob- Romaszkan, of Horodenka, Galicia. These represent the division of " long'-woolled sheep" {^Ovis stj'epsiceros), which will again come prominently into notice in treating of Hungarian sheep. They are of various colours, and are not fixed in their character, even with regard to horns. They are a long, coarse- Avoolled race, and the examples just referred to vield from 6 to-. 18^ lbs. of unwashed wool, sold at from ()^r/. to 7r/. per English lb. unwashed. The ewes are regularly milked, and are fre- quently let during the three milking months at Gi\ to 7s. per head. The judges acknowledged the value of the Baron's work in improving these sheep by awarding him a Hamburg prize.* Hungarian Sheep. The same general character was traceable throughout the entire Austro-Hungarian sheep show. Here the Merino reigned supreme, apparently no other race dividing the attention of Hun- garian breeders. Wallachian, Transylvanian, and Zackel sheep appeared, it is true, but they came as mountaineers, and did not enter into competition with the sheep of the plains. The Archduke Albrecht keeps Southdowns and Southdown crosses on his extensive Hungarian estates, but no specimens were forth- coming from these flocks. English sheep, which have evidently gained a footing in Germany and the northern parts of the Austrian Empire, were here almost absent. The only cases, indeed, in which English blood appeared were examples of a very successful cross made in Transylvania between Lincolns and Zackel sheep. The Zackel or long-woolled sheep have been already mentioned in the report upon the Austrian section. This race is generally distributed over the mountainous regions of Transylvania and Galicia, and appeared in considerable strength in the section now under con- sideration. Professor VVilhelm has been previously quoted as the writer of an article upon sheep in the \ ienna agricultural paper for June 21st. Regarding Zackel sheep, he writes: " We noticed GO pure specimens and 30 ci'osses of this race from various flocks. Side by side with the robust coarse-wooUed Zackel sheep from the Transylvanian Hills were superior Zigara or Cigarea sheep, with finer wool, from the flock of Count Emerich Miko, Klausenberg. There were also black Szekler sheep, and white- woolled Zackel sheep with black heads and legs. Also com- * '' Hamburg Prizes " are given by the city of Hamburg at certain Live Stock Shows held in Austria. Exhibitors from the Austro-Hungarian Emjiire are alone entitled to compete for them ; and a separate jury was appointed at Vienna to adjudicate them. of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 55 pletely white sheep of the same type. Some Zackel rams had long horns, while others from Galicia were hornless.'' We have already noticed the good qualities possessed by Baron Romaszkan's Zackel sheep. Mr. Paget describes the Transylvanian type as long-woolled, black or white, and horned. The sources of profit are wool, milk, and lambs, and it is reckoned that each season the lamb brings 4.s\, the wool 4*\, and about 15 lbs. of cheese gives 4^. more, in all 125. The sheep bear the Avinter* without shelter, and each sheep consumes 240 lbs. of hay and nothing else during the winter. The lamlis are separated from the dams at six or seven weeks old, on St. George's Day, April 25th. The ewes are milked till September 25th, and put to the ram at the end of October. Each flock consists of about half and half, black and Avhite. When black tups are paired with white ewes the produce is nearly always black. The lambs' skins show a pretty, fine, curling lock, which causes them to be in great request. The following is the substance of a letter received from Mr. Paget, describing the Transylvanian Zackel sheep, and the results of his experiments in producing a crossed race with English Lincolns : — " It is about ten years since twelve of the principal landed proprietors of Transylvania met together at my invita- tion to consider the best ineasures for the improvement of our indigenous long-woolled sheep. "• In consequence of the competition of Australian short wools, our Alerino and cross-bred Alerino wools would soon have been beaten out of the market. The price of this commodity was falling day by day, while coarse long wool was improving in price. There had also been inquiries made bv French specu- lators about the price of our sheep when fat, so that for the first time there seemed to be a chance of exporting mutton. This double stimulus turned attention to the native sheep, which is not a bad animal when compared with the unimproved races of other countries. The leg is short, the bone not too heavy, head fine, and wool long, although very coarse. What is called a good flock here is composed of about 300 ewes, half of which are black, and half white. To these, generally, but not universallv, black rams are put, the object being to get as manv black lambs as possible, black skins being of twice the value of white ones. On the other hand the white ewe gives more wool, which fetches * The temperature of the moimfainous district of Ti-ansylvania varies from + 9:0 ' Fahr. in the height of ' summer, to — 29" Fahr. in the depth of winter ; but in the rest of tlie northern highlands the minimum temperature is — .5° Fahr. (' Skizze dor Landeskunde Ungarns," edited by Karl Keleti, Chef des Kon. Ung. Statistischen Bureaus.) 56 Report upon the Af/ricultural Features a better price than that from black ewes. The black ewe wool is indeed scarcely black, but of a dirty grey colour. The sheep on the mountainous parts are generally larger, and coarser in wool, and the horns are more fully developed, " The horns of the Transylvanian sheep do not stand up in a spiral, like those of Wallachia, but are curled round like the Scotch blackfaces. The face and legs are often black, or more commonly spotted, and this character is not lost after two or three crosses. The lamb is often spotted, but after the first clip the fleece is white, "These animals are tame and easily managed by the shepherd and his dogs. For a flock of 300 two men are required. Besides the lamb and fleece, the ewes give about 15 ll>s. (English) of good cheese during the season, and this product is mostly consumed at home. " Our objects in improving the breed were to obtain a finer wool, and at the same time, increase the quantity and keep up the length of the staple. Also to improve the feeding aptitude and form of the animal, while still keeping up its activity and hardihood. It was also proposed to keep up to a certain extent the milking properties. " After due deliberation we chose the Lincoln as the best cross, on account of the length and glossiness of its wool. My late cousin, Mr. Charles Paget, of Fluddington, was kind enough to procure us 27 rams and 20 ewes of this breed. Every member of the society received 2 rams for his own use, and 3 were reserved with the 20 ewes to form a nursery for future use. Of this reserve it is not necessary to speak further, as in two years all except two or three ewes had died of tuberculous lungs. With the rams we were more fortunate, and some of us used them till seven or eight years (dd. The first and second crosses were everything we could desire. The wool was longer, the texture much finer, the gloss beautiful, the quantity doubled. The milk was not lessened by more than one-quarter, and although rather more difficult to milk than the unimproved breed while young, the teat grew longer after the second lamb. The form of the animal was greatly improved, especially across the loins, and the good effects of the cross could be recognised even in the skeleton by the change in the form of the ribs and false ribs. They fed much more easily, and the flesh had not that strong flavour which makes old mutton of the native breed not always pleasant. Better mutton than that of the crossed sheep I never ate. The price of the unimproved long wool is about 5f(/, per lb., and the first year we sold the cross-bred wool at three times the price of that of the native breed, but alas I the manufacturers declared their machinery was of the Vienna Exhibition, I^IZ. 57 not adapted for it, and it was eventually sent to England for sale. The price is now no higher than that of our common wool. " Against all these advantages, owing to the introduction of Lincoln sheep, must be set a somewhat greater delicacy. There is a tendency in the heat of summer to Sudden death from in- ilammation of the spleen, and if bred too hiylily there is a dispo- sition to tuberculous disease of the lungs. I differ from many breeders in my practice of never crossing mine more than twice, and then breeding in-and-in to get the form as constant as I can. The award of the jury has confirmed me in my opinion. We suffered at one time from " scab." It took us three years to get rid of it, the closeness and length of the wool rendering treat- ment difficult, but for the last five years we have had no return. " We do not expect to see a great increase in the numbers of this cross until we can get a market for our wool, and on the other hand we can scarcely expect a market till some more of our neighbours follow our example. " From the interest exhibited at the Vienna Show it is likely that the idea will spread ; and should it do so, we have the material already acclimatised, and may not only look for a fair remuneration for our labours, but hope for an opportunity of doing a good service for the country." There is a breed of sheep on the borders of Transylvania and Wallachia which may be described as coarse, short-wooUed, and •of reddish-black or brown colour, hornless, large, and leggy. They are bred on the mountains, and towards winter they are driven down to the plains of the Danube in Wallachia, where they remain till spring. They are attended by their owners, who migrate backwards and forwards with their families, and live during summer in the open air. These men are often possessed of 4000 to 5000 sheep, and occasionally of from 15,000 to 20,000. They slowly migrate with their flocks downwards to the valleys and up again to the mountains as the seasons alter, and have comfortable wooden ■chalets for the winter. Returning to the Zackel sheep, it is not a matter of surprise that an attempt should have been made to cross them with an English race. It is about ten years ago since the first Lincoln ram was imported into Transylvania for this purpose, and the example of the crossed race exhibited at Vienna certainly spoke very favourably of the result. These were supplied by Baron Banffy, Count Emerich Miko, M. Ladislaus Tirza, &c. The improvement of the frame, refinement in the bone, and improve- ment in the wool were cjuite noticeable. The judges acknow- ledged the services of the first undertaker of this cross, our countryman, Mr. John Paget, of Gyeres, near Torda, Transyl- 58 Report vj)on the Af/ricultural Features vania, whose experience is above related, by awardinof him jd Hamburg prize. The Zackel sheep of the Moravian Car- pathians were used as the base of the Keltschan " flesh "" breed, which has been aheadj noticed. Hungarian Merino Sheep. — The Hungarian Merinos were all of the Negretti-Electoral type. As has been previously stated, the Rambouillet cross was never much in favour among Hun- garian breeders, on account of its openness of fleece, which allowed the sun and hot winds to dry the wool, while dust and dirt at the same time gained access. The wool is generally very short, well closed, and very full of fat. The flock of Count Alois Karolyi, Stampfen, was the first visited, and it was there that I first saw the Hungarian Schaferei or sheep-stalile, and Avas introduced into the mysteries of examining or inspecting a Merino fleece. The Stampfen flock is one of the most celebrated in the country. Half-a-dozen wool samples from this flock now before me, vary from 1 inch to 1^ inch in length, and are of marvellous fineness, and mostly of rich orange colour from the grease or fat. The colour occurs in deep bands, which shade into a light yellow, and the samples have a rich candied appearance as though they had been immersed in a rich sugary syrup. Another flock worthy of honourable mention is that of Count Emerich Hunyady, of Uermeny. These sheep are cele])rate(T not only for the high quality of their avooI, but for the size and compactness of their frames, as may be seen by inspecting the stud flock at Tarany. The wool is less abundant in fat than that from Stampfen, is a shade longer, and is whiter in colour. This is the flock from Avhich the Imperial flock at Godollo, on the railway from Pesth to Vienna, was derived. The animals exhibited from Godollo were, however, inferior to the repre- sentatives of the " father herd." The Uermeny flock carried oft" the highest honours given in the section. The Countess Henckle, of Karlburg, possesses a splendid flock of Electoral-Negrettis carrying wonderfully fine wool, of which I was also fortunate in obtaining eight fine samples. It varies from under 1 inch to about 1^ inch in length, and is of the same rich character and colour as the Stampfen wool. Count Czilchert, estate near Somorja, a nobleman who has long been a leader both in the breeding of animals and in agri- culture, showed some exceedingly fine, short, high quality wool. It is 1^ inch long (these measurements are all given without stretching the wool out to its full length), finely curled, and coloured with beautiful regularity in four distinct zones, varying from almost white to rich orange. Widow Geist, Pesth, also showed specimens of that flock for of tlic Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 59 Avhich her husband was in such great repute. These sheep carry a very strong, heavy quality of wool, for which there is a great demand, and many animals are sold yearly for breeding purposes. Swine. Two hundred and seventy-seven swine were entered in the catalogue, few of which were missing. Of these, 24 came from England, 8 from Italy, 72 from Germany, 48 from Austria, and 125 from Hungary. Englisli Breeds. — Both white and black were fairly represented by specimens brought over by some of our best and most enter- prising breeders. Mr. J. K. Fowler, already mentioned as an exhibitor of Shorthorns, showed breeding swine of the Berkshire, and of the small white races. Mr. Russell Swanwick brought a dozen Berkshires from the long-established herd at the Agricul- tural College Farm, Cirencester, which were greatly admired, and f(jr the most part well sold. As an instance of the endurance of the race, it may be mentioned that Mr. Swanwick's well-known and handsome boar " Lord Liverpool," after winning honours at Vienna, returned to take prizes at English Agricultural Shows. The Messrs. Duckering sent examples of their celebrated white pigs from Lincolnshire, and this concludes the list of English exhibitors. In no case was the superiority of English stock better illus- trated than in the pig classes, and it may be here remarked that English crosses are by no means uncommon over the whole Empire. These crossed animals are easily identified by their finer white skins and general English look, and are usually derived from the union of the native breed with white Windsor pigs. The ready sale which English pigs met with, at good prices, and the universal extent of country over which they might be distributed with advantage, indicate a market in the future, as the agriculturists of South-eastern Europe gradually come to recognise their excellences. Itdhj was here represented, as might have been expected, by the fine, hairless, black, long-nosed, and somewhat leggy Neapo- litan race, from which our own improved Essex derives his colour and character. They were eight in number. Germany. — Of the 72 head from Germany all were of English origin. Baron Magnus contributed a boar and three sows, of the Windsor race, from his herd at Dresha, in Saxony. This herd was established in 1862 by direct purchases made in England, and since then recourse has been again had to the mother country for fresh blood. Messrs. Schiltt and Ahrens, salesmen at Stettin, in Prussia, (50 Report upon the Agricultural Features showed some fair Lincolnshire swine, and nine young Berkshires — three to six months old. The 20 Berkshire swine sent hj the Agricultural School of Eldena, Pomerania, could not bear comparison with English- bred pigs of the same race ; the heads having been allowed to become narrow and long. These swine were from a herd of about 150, established in 1860 by importations from England. Herr A. M. Sehon, Brestau, Linderode, Brandenburg, Prussia, showed Berkshires, from his herd of bo head. These swine were originally purchased from Sir Watkin Wynn, and fresh boars are imported every second year from England. The heads of these animals were also defective, the noses being ex- ceedingly long, and therefore quite out of character with the best examples of the race, H. Josef Diethelm, Brandenburg, Prussia, was an exhibitor of Yorkshire and Suffolk crosses, which may be spoken of as very excellent swine, the descendants of animals imported from England in 1863. Austria. — Nothing but English breeds of swine appeared in this section. Taking both the German and Austrian sections, the conclusion seemed inevitable that English races have dete- riorated, or, at least, materially altered in character, in foreign hands. They have lost roundness of form, and acquired an inordinate length of head and legs. There were exceptions to this rule, among which may be mentioned a fine hog, exhibited by Herr Johann Wilfort, of Lower Austria — a cross between English and Chinese swine ; several fine Lincolnshire swine, exhibited by Prince Franz Salm-Reifferscheid, Bohemia ; some good swine of English race, shown in the collection of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vienna ; and some good SufFolks, exhibited by Heir Domiine Smiritz, Hovrenoves, Bohemia. A sow (133), exhibited by Herr Alois Soinmer, was also a great attraction. She was white, and of Yorkshire race, bred in Moravia. She was ac- companied by nine remarkably fine suckers, very large for their age, and these were all sold on the first day at 6Z. sterling each, and many persons who came later to buy were disappointed. Huncjary. — The English races were scarcely found in this section. Herr A. L. Blaschko, Szegedin, showed a black sow, the result of a cross between Hungarian and English swine. The principal point to be observed was that this sow had littered five times in two years, and produced 16 to 18 young ones on each occasion. With regard to Hungarian races, it may be stated that they are exceedingly unsightly, and even disgusting, in appearance to an English eye. Such at least was the impression conveyed to me : others, well accustomed to English swine, shared in it. This of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 61 impression was partly the result of the contrast they offered to our highly-bred pig's, and partly of the peculiar reddish-brown colour of the skin, the grizzled and abundant hair, and the patchy covering of soft dirty-looking wool which very frequently under- lies the longer bristles. The swine are long-nosed, flat-sided, of flat, oval form, and are much esteemed in their own country for the lard, which is largely used in the Hungarian cuisine. The Hungarian pigs abound over the whole country, and especially^ among the peasantry, and English crosses are not very frequently seen. One of the most widely distributed races is the Mangalicza, It is divided into three sub-varieties — (1) black, (2) light- coloured, (3) black above, and light below. All are covered with bristles and an under-covering of down or wool, and are valued as excellent lard pigs. Count Wenckheim, of 'O-Kigyos, showed crossed Mangalicza and Miloser, thick, well-fleshed,, and covered with a thick pile of silver-grey hair ; the ears were over the eyes, and the heads wedge-shaped, and of moderate length. Herr Bernard Deutsch, of Arad, in Lower Hungary, sent specimens of Mangalicza (Mezohegyeser) swine, which might be described as thick, deep, oval-formed animals, covered Avith bristles and grey wool. The Hungarian race may be described, from specimens sent by H. Alexander Bangi, of Hermanstadt, Transylvania, as large, coarse, and flat-sided, spotted in colour, long-nosed, standing- high on the leg, and of unpleasing appearance. A cross-bred pig between the Servian and Hungarian races certainly seemed to possess a most unnecessary length of nose and leg, was 3 feet 11 inches high, and of unprepossessing appearance. K'is-Jender and Szalontaer Races. — These are gi-eat favourites, and the former can be fattened at two years old. Specimens of the Kis-Jenoer examined were very long and fine in the nose, flap-eared, high on the leg, narrow on the crest, lank in the neck, moderately well formed in carcass. The skin was black, covered with long, red hair, especially thick on the main, and underlaid in patches with red wool, of which samples were brought home. The Szalontaer race greatly resembles that already described. The excellence of its bacon and hams would render it a valuable breed if it arrived more quickly at maturity ; but at present they can only be fattened at three years old. Russian swine exhi- bited from Theodoraki, and not described as belonging to any distinctive race, were black, with black hair, and reddish wool. In the Hungarian section a very thick, well-made pig, de- scribedas English and Syrmier, was noticed, which, so far as one example can do, pointed out the advantage of the English cross. Ten specimens, described a? English-Syrmier, were very C)2 Report upon the Agricultural Features excellent. Three of tliem weiijlied respectively 809, 835, and 850 lbs., and a fourth, a cross lietween a Sjrmier sow and Suffolk pig, weighed 907 English lbs. live weight. All were three years old, and exhibited as fat. Mr. Paget, who has had a long experience in Transylvania, informed me that English swine are not fitted for the occupation of hunting acoi'ns, and grubl)ing up roots. This is a misfortune in a country where acorns form a staple winter food for pigs. Our swine have lost power in their nasal muscles through high breeding and ringing, and they cannot now throw up the ground with the requisite vigour to find food and roots. Also the short- ness of their legs is considered a fault. A sow must be suffi- ciently long in the leg to wade through a foot deep of snow. If short in the leg, her paps are very liable to be cut off by the snow. These objections, valid though they be in Transylvania, cannot be held as applying to other parts of the Empire, and it is more than probable that, as in Austria and Germany, so also in Hungary, we shall find an increasing demand for English breeding-swine. Mr. Paget further informed me that Transylvania was formerly supplied, to a great degree, with short, high-backed, long-haired pigs from Wallachia, of bad quality, and feeding very hardly, \Vithin the last twenty years the Si/rmier race has been ex- tensively introduced. This race fattens easily, and at the com- pletion of its second year arrives at a weight of from 240 to 480 lbs. It bears the extremes of climate well ; is enabled by its strength of snout to root in the woods, and seek for acorns, beech nuts, 6ic., and to feed upon stubbles during the autumn. Large landowners frequently keep 50 to 300 or 400 sows, and in extreme cases even as many as 1000. All are required to drop their pigs at one time, /. e. within ten days of each other, and this generally takes place in January. The swine are sold either at 9 or 18 months old. Show of Implements. In no department of the Vienna Exhibition did Great Britain so completely take the lead as in Agricultural Machinery. We may say, without fear of serious dereliction from absolute truth, that British agricultural implements, or implements constructed upon British models, were in quiet possession of the field. As yet, the representative of one of our leading firms informed me, they simply ignore foreign competitors, unless American makers come under that designation. It was singular to notice the crude designs and rough finish of many of the non-English implements ; and on the other hand, it was interesting to note how certain firms had been content to accept English guidance, of the Vioma Exhibition, 1873. G3 ■nnd to exhibit implements the counterpart of what appeared at the English stands. In my report on the rural economy of the various parts of this vast empire, I shall l)e able to show good reason for the statement that England and America are almost -exclusively looked to for a supply of agricultural implements in Austro-Hungary. Professor Fuchs, in an introductory article upon the Agricul- tural Machinery of the Vienna Exhibition, ' Wiener Landwirth- schaftliche Zeitung,' June 5th, writes as follows : — "At the end of our round we were still convinced that in the manufacture of agricultural machines, England is the first among the European nations. We say this without jealousy, as we were fully con- vinced of the fact both by the extent and excellence of the English section. Xo feeling of admiration touched our souls as "we passed through the Machine Halls of Germany, Austria, and Hungary.' The Professor proceeds to complain of the want of attention which has been bestowed upon this branch ; the low estimation in which it is held by their own mechanical engineers, and the small belief which exists in it as a profitable investment of money. Surely, he asks, " the countries of Krupp, Barsig, Schwarzkopf, Sigl, and Ganz, can compete with the countrv of Clavton, Ransome, Hornsby, &c. ?" The answer is conveyed in the question, and there is no doubt that when the agricultural implement manufacture is taken up by the great firms of the country, a severe struggle will at once ensue between the English -and Austrian firms. Sigl has already led the way ; and if he adds an agricultural implement factory to his gigantic works in Vienna and Berlin, he will prove an awkward rival to English makers. Entering the Eastern Agricultural Hall, a very quaint display of ordinary implements was observable from Russia, comprised of winnowers, horse-rakes, drills, horse-power threshing-machines, tScc. All brought forcibly to mind the illustrations of agricul- tural implements seen in old editions of Tull and other writers, and the finish was rough. A Polish firm showed a large assort- ment of implements, among which were many quaint instruments x)f cultivation almost identical with ancient Egyptian, and early Saxon ploughs, associated with CrosskilFs clodcrusher, drills after Garrett, and portable engines, bringing us suddenly- back to the present time. From Russia the visitor passed into the Hungarian section. Here, attention was arrested by the excel- lent show of Hungarian ploughs, exhibited by Stephen Vidats, of Pesth. This manufacturer is the great Hungarian plough- inaker. He makes and sells 4000 to 5000 ploughs in the year at the very moderate sum of 30 to 35 florins (£3 to £3 10s.) each. There was also a creditable show of drills with revolving .seed boxes, and a scuffler with a faulty arrangement of the 64 Rcjwrt npon the Afjricultiiral Features teeth or tines. Karl Staclel, of Raab, may he mentioned as an enterprising Hungarian maker, whose winnowing-machine was noticed as good. Peter Polgar is a country plough-maker in Lower Hungary, and deserves notice for some well-finished ploughs, well fitted for the requirements of the country. Strobl and Baris are enterprising agricultural implement makers at Pesth, and exhibited some good and well-finished ploughs, with the characteristic forecarriage and abrupt mould-board, generally used in Hungary, of which the accompanying sketch gives a correct idea. Fig. 17. — Messrs. Stroll and Baris" s Hungarian Plough. Mr. G. T. Yull, who in early life left England to join the late Mr. Smallbones, in Hungary, has paid special attention to the improvement of the Hungarian plough, and he is allowed to be the originator of the form now sold by Clayton and Shuttle- worth for Hungary and other countries. I am indebted to Mr. Yull for an interesting note, the substance of which may be suitably introduced here. Austrian and Hunfjarian Ploxicjhs. — " Twenty years ago it was nothing strange to find ploughs entirely made of wood — not even an iron nail about them. In fact, the only piece of iron in the whole implement Avas the share or sock, which was made of sheet iron, and was held in its place by a wooden pin. This implement had at that time begun to fall into disuse among the larger proprietors with the introduc- tion of a deeper system of cultivation, and the Ruhadlo, Hohen- heim and Zugmayer ploughs had to a certain extent displaced them. These latter were short and abrupt in the mould-board, and their work was not calculated to please those who loved to see fine smooth ploughing. The prevalence of English ideas, and the visits of Hungarian noblemen to England, led to the introduction of Howard and Ransome ploughs ; but these never became general on account of difficulties connected with the of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. 65 yoking and driving of bullocks. The oxen are driven without reins, and the teamsman had sufficient to attend to in turning his oxen with his whip, and had no time to attend to the imple- ment. The plough was thrown on its side, and allowed to find its way round as best it could, and this became a serious difficulty, bending the wheels and doing other damage. The evident superiority of their actual work, especially after the Agricultural Shows of Vienna and Pesth, in 1857, convinced the native manufacturers that reform was necessary, and in 1859, at a great ploughing competition at Eresin, near Pesth, several new forms were submitted for trial. These combined the advantages of the English bodies and turn-furrows with the independent fore- carriage so generally used on the Continent, which enables the plough to be thrown upon its side in turning at the ends. The two gold medals offered Avere awarded to two ploughs of this construction ; the one made by R. Hornsby and Sons, Grantham, and the other by A. Gubicz, of Pesth, on Howard's principle. " The leading makers of these ploughs are Vidats, and Strobl and Baris, in Pesth, above-noticed ; Kiihne, Wieselburg, and Burg and Son, Vienna. At the Agricultural Show of 1861, in Vienna, Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth exhibited ploughs of similar construction, which speedily were in demand. Messrs. Ransome, Sims, and Head are also now doing an extensive trade in these and other ploughs all over the Continent, The old wooden ploughs are now rarely to be seen ; but in the plains of Hungary some of the old class peasants still scratch away three to four inches deep with the ancient type of imple- ment. The following figure represents Clayton and Shuttleworth's plough, made especially for the country. The fore-carriage is of Fig. 18. — Messrs. Clayicni and Shdtlewwth's Hungarian Plough. wrought iron, and the furrow-wheel is movable, thereby improving VOL. X. — s. s. r 66 Rejiort upon the Agricultural Features on the plough made by Strobl and Baris. The depth is regulated by a screw-nut behind the beam revolving on the nut a. This plan is good when the share, as is commonly the case here, is a fixture. Edward Kiihne, of Wieselburg, above-mentioned in connec- tion with the Hungarian plough, exhibited a good assortment of implements which, by their construction, showed a keen apprecia- tion of new improvements. He has sent out above 1300 drills in two years. Garrett's drill, Read's subsoil plough, Howards zigzag harrow, Crosskill's roller, Howard's raised ridge harrow. Page's horse-hoe, and horse-rakes and winnowers of English form, have also been adopted, and if not all present in the Exhibition, were described and illustrated in the catalogue. The following illustration of native implements now manufactured by the same firm, will indicate the crude ideas which must have prevailed universally some twenty years ago ; but which are now being dis- dispelled by our skilled machinists. The first implement (Fig. 19), is a cultivator for ridding land of couch {Queckenreiniger\ Fig. 19. — Hungarian Scarifier. The faulty arrangement of teeth, their perpendicular position, and abrupt bend at the points, bring back to the memory forms long abandoned by English makers. The reader must imagine the above implement drawn by bullocks in order to completely realize its primitive appearance. The one-row horse-hoe (Fig. 20), with eighteen teeth, formed and arranged^in a manner to be at once heavy and ineffective, is another]! startling apparition in 1873, but interesting as forming a link between past history and future progress. of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873. Fig. 20. — Hungarian Horse-hoe. 67 The next figure (21) represents a characteristic implement, extensively used on light lands for covering seed. It is drawn bv a pair of bullocks, and covers rye and other cereals sown broadcast on a harrowed surface. Small peasants use a seed- plough (saat-pliige), with three shares and a double beam, mounted on two wheels. Fig. 21. — Hungarian Seed-coverer. Figure 22 represents a roller in common use in Hungary, after ploughing. The action is not unlike that of a Cambridge roller, and the position of the discs secures a constant self-cleaning as well as grinding action. This implement is made by Strobl and Baris. Fig. 22. — Hungarian Douhle-rollei;. 68 Rejwrt upon the Agricultural Features ivortlis Hand Maize-MlMer. a Figure 23 shows Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth's hand maize-kibbler for removing- the corn from the cobs. The col)s _,. „., ,, ™ 7 «T 7 are fed into the orifice (7, F:g. 2d.-Messrs Clayton and Shuttle- ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ between the revolving disc- wheel Z», and the revolving " club " c, are stripped by the rapidly-moving projec- tions seen in the drawing. Eichinger and Sons, of Szegedin, may be also noticed as prominent Hun- garian makers, and at their stall might he noticed an excellent, although slightly complicated, corn-dressing machine. Zavar and Stoye, of Oedenburg, also showed a well - made drill, with steerage which worked from behind. Passing onwards into the Austrian section one came upon a wonderful assort- ment of antiquated-looking: machines, which seemed much out of place, except as curiosities, in an exhibition of modern agricultural implements. Franz Kugler, of Vienna, showed some excellent drop-drills, for which he is justly noted ; ploughs, after Clayton and .Shuttle- worth models ; harrows, after Howard's zigzag principle. Herr FTofherr, of Erlachgasse, Vienna, received his training at Clayton and Shuttleworth's Vienna works, and is now an- independent manufacturer. His stand was characterised by its good arrangement, and his implements by first-class work- manship. Hofherr turns out excellent mowers and reapers, and his little factory is a model of neatness. I shall have occasion again to refer to him in the Report of the Agriculture of the country. A. Burg and Son, of Vienna, belong to much the same class of manufacturers as the last, and the present Herr Burg was two years resident in England studying his profession. At this stand was a good broad-cast sower, a good winnower, some excellent ploughs, &c. Clayton and Shuttleworth are undoubtedly the leading agri- cultural engineers in the Austrian dominions. This firm is so intimately connected with the agricultural progress of the of the Vienna Exhibition, 1%!^. 69 country that they will be again referred to on a future occasion. The superiority of English workmanship and style was at once evident on approaching this stand, although the exhibits w<^re Jiiany of them made in Vienna. Among implements especially constructed with a view to the wants of Austro-Hungary may be mentioned their Indian-corn sheller, adapted both for steam and horses, with dressing and sacking apparatus ; and, in addition to their former numei'ous implements, they have now added a light drill to suit the country, and four and six-horse power threshing-machines adapted for horse gears. Sigl, of Vienna, was an exhibitor in the Austrian agri- cultural section. Sigl's works in Vienna are very extensive, even when compared with the leading engineering works in England. He exhibited engines and threshing machines on the principle of Hornsby, of Grantham, and the whole of his work showed first-rate skill. Carow, of Prague, also showed neat and handsome agricultural machinery. French and German Departments. — MM. Albaret and Son, successors to M. N. Duvoir, were the principal French exhibitors, and showed a large assortment of implements from their works at Liancourt-Rantigny, in the Department Oise (head office, 29, Rue de Viarmes, Paris). Their portable engines and horse- gears for threshing purposes, their threshing-machines, reapers, chaff-cutters, root-pulpers, &c., were all essentially English in design, although I have no wish to give the impression that they were mere copies of any particular English machines. The collection of agricultural implements sent by M. Pernollet, •of Paris, who is famous for corn-screens, and makes other agri- cultural machinery, was also noticed. The German section was well filled by a large number of stands representing many good firms. Here I cannot refrain from finding fault with the official catalogues, which rendered it exceedingly difficult to follow the order of the exhibits. Had there been an alphabetical or numerical order, or, in fact, any sort of correspondence between the catalogues and the objects exhibited, the task of reporting would have been much simplified. Since there was none, it became exceedingly difficult to construct order out of such a disorganized medley. Many names of exhibitors did not appear in the catalogue, and others were found with the greatest difficulty. In the official general catalogue. Group XIII., now under con- sideration, was entirely omitted, although it occupies fifty pages acid / Soluble Silica . . . . 5-52 3-35 4-02 6-34 5-74 7-89 5-65 4-40 -80 •90 205 1-99 1-10 1^25 Total residue perl gallon (dried at> 37-75 21-15 26-85 37-10 48-65 48-75 25^40 260°Fahr.) ..) Ammonia, per gallon •023 •018 •018 •020 •006 -040 -046 According to the prec eding ana lytical resi alts, the c omposition of the dra mage-wate r from the An imperial gallon contains : — Organic and volatile^ matter . . . . / 1-41 -85 1-11 1^55 2-75 1-01 1 61 Oxide of iron -15 •40 •39 •21 1^50 -20 •30 Carbonate of lime 4-59 8-82 8-50 11-32 13-75 16-34 9-82 Sulphate of lime . . 14-01 6^65 10-73 12-72 16-69 14-47 7-02 Nitrate of lime . . 8-01 2^66 3-60 5-45 8-90 10^52 2-90 Carbonate of mag-\ nesia / -67 •71 •82 1-57 1-76 1^72 -90 Chloride of sodhim 2-26 191 1-56 2-78 4-18 5-63 1-36 Soluble silica 4-40 •80 •90 2-05 1-99 1^10 1-25 j 35-50 22-80 27-41 37-65 51-52 50-99 25 16 Ammonia •023 •018 •018 -020 -006 •040 -046 On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainage. Waters collected December 6th, 1866. DIFFERENTLY MANURED, COLLECTED DECEMBER 6tH, 1806. 137 svery year, commencing 1814. in Drainage-Waters in Grains per Gallon. 400 lbs. AUMOKIA-SALTS (82 Ibs of NrrKOGE: •)• Mineral Manure, as 800 lbs. Ammonia-salts, 1852-18i>J. Unmanurod 1865, and since. Without Mineral Manure. With Superphos- phate of Lime. With Superphos- phate and Sulphate of Soda. With Superphos- phate and Sulphate of Potash. With Super- phosphate and Sulphate of Magnesia. Pee Gallon. Plot 10. Plot 11. Plot 12. Plot 13. Plot 14. Plot 16. 1-10 1-25 1 35 2-25 2-05 •75 /Organic matter and \ loss on beating (Oxide of iron and •35 •30 •35 -45 •40 •25 \ traces of pbospboric j acid 1310 14-33 18-05 20-21 26-28 9-26 Lime. •67 -54 •50 -74 1^06 •43 Magnesia, 3-07 2-86 2-86 3-49 359 •53 Chlorine. 3-84 4-80 10-09 9^40 9^75 1-71 Sulpburic acid. 6-11 7-06 7-55 8-07 2^43 Nitric acid. 11-82 5-01 8-60 7 25 9-21 6-69 ("Alkalies and carbonic \ acid. Soluble silica. 2-90 •35 •49 •61 •60 115 ( Totnl residue per 36-85 35-55 49 35 51-95 56^01 23 20 < gallon (dried at ( 260^ Fahr.). not determined •040 •028 •028 •020 •010 Ammonia, per gallon. different plots may be re] )resented a 3 follows :- An imperial gallon contains : — 1-10 1-25 1-35 2-25 2^05 •75 ( Organicandvolatile \ matter. •35 •30 •35 •45 •40 •25 Oxide of iron. ISGl 13-93 13-09 17-41 18-35 1212 Carbonate of lime. G-53 8^16 17-15 15-98 16-57 2^91 Sulphate of lime. not determined 9-28 10-72 11-43 12-25 3-70 Nitrate of linu-. 1-31 1-13 1-05 1^55 2-22 •90 f Carbonate of mag- \ nesia. •5-06 4-71 4^71 5-75 5-91 •87 Chloride of sodium. 2-90 •35 •49 •61 •60 1-15 Soluble silica. 35-86 39-11 48^91 55-43 58-35 22-65 not determined -040 •028 -028 •020 •010 Ammonia. 138 On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainage. 5. A glance at the combined results of the several analyses shows that much of the lime in the drainage passes away in the form of nitrate of lime. 6. All the drainage-waters from the plots to which chlorides had been applied contained considerably more chlorine in the form of chlorides than the drainage from plots upon which no chlorides had been used. Thus the drainage from unmanured Plots 3 and 4 contained in round numbers 1 grain of chlorine, and that from Plot 5, not dressed with manures containing chlorides, yielded about the same quantity of chlorine, whilst the drainage from Plot 6, to which a mixture of 200 lbs. of sulphate and chloride of ammonia in equal proportions had been applied, contained 1*69 grains of chlorine ; that of Plot 7, dressed with 400 lbs. of mixed ammonia-salts, gave 2 '54 grains of chlorine ; and that of Plot 8, manured with 600 lbs. of mixed ammonia salts, yielded 3*59 grains of chlorine. 7. The same remark applies to sulphuric acid. The plots manured with sulphates yielded drainage richer in sulphates than those to which no sulphuric acid, in the shape of readily soluble sulphates, had been applied. Professor Way has shown that soils have not the power of absorbing and retaining the acid elements of chlorides and sul- phates, and these results fully confirm his observations. 8. It is remarkable that the quantity of soluble silica in the drainage from Plot 2, continuously manured with farmjard- manure, contains nearly A:\ grains of soluble silica, which evidently is derived from the rotten straw in the dung, it being well known that straw abounds in silica. 9. Special attention is directed to the exceedingly small quantities of ammonia which were found in all the thirteen samples of waters. Although some of the plots had been annually manured with large quantities of ammonia salts, and Plot 2 with farmyard- manure — containing nitrogen both in the form of ammoniacal salts and of decomposing nitrogenous organic matter, which readily gives rise to the formation of ammonia — all the drainage-waters contained, practically speaking, mere traces of ammonia. The drainage from the highly-manured plots, it will be seen, hardly contained more ammonia than that from the unmanured portions of the same field. Professor Way has determined the amount of ammonia in rain-water in a series of samples, supplied to him by Mr. Lawes, representing the whole rainfall at Rothamsted of each month in the year 1855. The following table shows the amount in grains of ammonia and of nitric acid in an imperial gallon of the rain of different months : On the Composition of Waters of Land-Draincujc. 139 Table sJwicing the amount of Ammonia and Nitric Acid in Rain-Water, 1855, in Grains per Imperial Gallon {Professor Way). Ammonia. Nitric Acid. January "092 .. .. -017 February -104 .. .. -042 March -086 .. .. -021 April -123 .. .. -035 ■ May .. -080 .. .. -035 June -135 .. .. -080 July -061 .. .. -017 August -080 .. ., -060 September '095 .... -021 October.. .. -061 .. .. -036 November -054 .... -018 December -067 .... -017 The mean quantity for the whole year is 0'86 grains in a gallon, or about 1'228 parts in a million of water according to Professor Way ; and Mr. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert found, in their experiments in 1853 and 1854, on an average, as nearly as possible 1 part of ammonia in a million of rain. f ^On comparing the amount of ammonia in rain-water with the proportions which I found in the preceding drainage-waters it will be seen that the latter, without exception, contain less ammonia than rain. It follows from these observations that the ammonia in rain, as well as that contained in ammoniacal manures, and that produced during the decomposition of nitro- genous fertilising matters, is either absorbed by the soil, or that it is probably oxydised and converted into nitric acid. I may state here at once that I have examined drainage-water collected at all times of the year, and never found more than mere traces of ammonia in them, whereas the proportion of nitric acid in Avaters from land-drainage is nearly always more considerable than in rain-water, and, at times, very large indeed. 10. This leads to the consideration of the remarkable occur- rence of nitric acid, or, more correctly speaking, nitrates in the drainage-water from land upon which nitrates have never been applied. From the preceding calculated results it will be seen that the drainage from all the plots contained more or less nitric acid, and that even that from the plot upon which no manure what- ever had been used for 25 years, contained an appreciable amount of nitric acid. It is interesting to notice that the continuously unmanured Plots 3 and 5 furnished drainage-water poorer in nitric acid than any of the other plots, and that the influence of the application of ammoniacal salts to Plot 16 before 1865 is still perceptible in the slightly larger proportion of nitric acid which was found in the drainage of Plot 16. 140 On the Composition of Waters of Land- Drainage. All soils under cultivation contain vegetable matters in the sliape of decaying roots and other remains of previous crops, and it is to the gradual decay and oxydation of the nitrogen contained in these vegetable matters that the presence of nitric acid in the drainage from the unmanured plots must be ascribed. Farmyard-manure does not contain nitrates, nevertheless the drainage-water from Plot 2, inanured with farmyard-manure, con- tained 5*28 grains of nitric acid per gallon, or about three times as much as the drainage from the adjoining unmanured plots. It appears thus that a portion of the nitrogen contained in farmyard-manure passes into the drains in the shape of nitrates, and, this being the case, it appears to me better policy to jnanure moderately for each crop than to apply a heavy dressing ol dung to one crop in a rotation and none to the succeeding crops ; for it is plain that the loss in nitrogenous fertilizing elements by drainage will be greater if a large quantity of dung- is applied at once to the land and left for a succession of crops than if each crop is manured in turn. In the former case a large mass of dung is exposed to the oxydising influence of the air and the solvent action of the rain at periods of the year when active growth practically is at a standstill, and rain falls more copiously than during the spring months and periods of active growth. A larger amount of nitrates under these circumstances passes into the drains than is likely to be the case if every crop is manured with more moderate dressings of dung, when each crop will receive a fresh supply of nitrogenous constituents that will afford nitrates at a time of the year when the crop can appropriate them and be benefited thereby. In other words, greater chance is given to the rain to wash out the nitrates more effectually when only one crop of a rotation is heavily dunged than is the case if farmyard-manure in more moderate quantities is applied to more than one crop. 11. Although large quantities of ammonia-salts had been applied to some of the plots, the drainage-water from these, and indeed from all the plots, contained merely traces of ammonia. It will be noticed, however, that the drainage-waters from all the plots dressed with ammonia-salts were found to contain nitric acid in notable proportions ; and, further, that from those plots which had been manured with the larger quantities of ammonia-salts the drainage was richer in nitric acid than the waters from the plots manured with a smaller quantity of ammonia-salts. Thus whilst the drainage from the unmanured Plots, Nos. 3 and 4, contained only 1*75 grains of nitric acid, that from Plot 6, manured with 200 lbs. of ammonia-salts per acre, contained 3'59 On the Composition of Watcis of Land-Drainage. 141 grains of nitric acid ; the adjoining Plot, No. 7, to which 400 lbs. of ammonia-salts had been applied, 5"86 grains ; and the next Plot, No. 8, manured with 600 lbs. ammonia-salts, contained 6*93, or nearly 7 grains of nitric acid per gallon. It appears from these experiments that salts of ammonia in contact with soil permeated by air suffer decomposition, and that the ammonia is gradually oxydised into nitric acid, which makes its appearance in land-drainage in combination with lime, and likewise, as we shall see further on, with magnesia. The oxy- dation of ammonia proceeds slowly but steadily ; hence the ammonia-salts which had been applied early in spring gave rise to the formation of nitric acid, a considerable proportion of which continued in the soil for some months, as the drainage-waters collected in December contained more nitric acid the larger the proportion of ammonia-salts which had been applied to the plots in spring. It may be inferred fi'om these observations that, in all proba- bility, nitric acid, and not ammonia, is the source from which plants derive their nitrogen as far as their supply is dependent upon the nitrogenous constituents of the soil. 12. It is a well-established fact that soils have not the power to retain either soda or nitric acid, and that, in consequence, the beneficial effects which usually result from the application of top-dressings with nitrate of soda to cereal crops in propitious seasons, are lost in a great measure when nitrate of soda is applied to the land early in spring, and continuous wet weather sets in. The drainage from Plot 9, manured in spring every year with 550 lbs. of nitrate of soda per acre, presents a striking illus- tration of the effect of rain on soils top-dressed with nitrate of soda. The drainage-water taken in December from this plot contained only 1*91 of nitric acid, or scarcely more than that from the continuously unmanured portions of the same field, which shows plainly that soils have not the power of retaining nitric acid for any length of time. On Plot 7, 400 lbs. of ammonia-salts, containing the same amount of nitrogen which is present in 550 lbs. of nitrate of soda, had been applied. The drainage from that plot contained in December 5*86 grains of nitric acid, or about 3 times as much as that from Plot 9 top-dressed with nitrate of soda. Whilst the nitric acid from the latter plot was removed in the course of the season, the ammonia-salts on Plot 7 appear to have become gradually oxydised and changed into nitrates. The land on Plot 7 contained, in consequence, considerable quantities of nitrates at a period of the year when the nitrate of soda applied to Plot 9 had drained away to a much greater extent. 142 On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainage. We may learn from this comparison that whilst nitrate of soda is more energetic and rapid in its action than ammonia- salts, it is more liable to be washed out of the land than the latter ; and that, in wet seasons, there is greater risk of losing the benefits of a top-dressing of nitrate of soda than is the case when sulphate of ammonia, guano, or other ammoniacal fertilizers are employed for cereal crops. With regard to the distribution of rain, and the general character of the season in 18GG, it maybe observed that January, and the first half of February, were unusually warm, though in January there was a heavy fall of snow, which, however, rapidly thawed, and the whole period was very wet. March on the whole was cold and dry. The beginning of April was cold and rather wet. May was unusually cold, and there was a deficiency of rain. June was changeable, and during this month a con- siderable excess of rain fell. The beginning of July was cold and wet ; then followed a week of hot and dry weather, but from about the middle of the month to nearly the end of September the weather was generally cold, with a good deal of rain and wind in August, and an almost continuous and excessive fall in September. October, however, was drier than usual. A good deal of rain fell about the middle of November and beginning of December, causing a full flow of the drains at the time when the samples of drainage-waters were collected. Second Series of Drainage-Watek Experiments. The second series of drainage-waters (Table II.) was collected on the 21st of May, 1867. All the drains except that of Plot 2, manured every year with about 14 tons of farmyard-manure, were freely running at the time of collection. Hardly any water passed through the drain on Plot 2 at that time, and a sufficient quantity for the purpose of analysis could not be obtained. In the first series of analyses neither potash nor soda were determined separately, nor was an attempt made to weigh the traces of phosphoric acid, which the qualitative examination has shown to exist in water of land-drainage. In the second series of analyses both potash and soda were separately determined in all the samples, as well as the amount of carbonic acid combined with basic constituents ; and in three instances the traces of phosphoric acid detected in the water were likewise determined by the delicate molybdate of ammonia process. None of the samples contained more than merely faint traces of ammonia. It was not, therefore, considered necessary to determine the amount. On the Composition of Waters of Land-Vraincif/c. 143 The results of the several analyses are incorporated in Table II. (pp. 144, 145). By comparing the preceding analytical results with each other, and with the analyses of the drainage-waters collected on the 6th December, 18(56, many points of interest are brought out, to some of which I shall now direct attention. 1. The total amount of fixed solid constituents varies from 16 J to 32-| grains per gallon in the several samples. It is smallest in the drainage from the continuously unmanured Plots, No. o and 4, which contained, in round numbers, only 16^ grains per gallon of solid matter in solution. On Plot 16 the influence of the application of mixed mineral and ammoniacal manures previous to 1865 is still perceptible in the larger amount of soluble constituents which passed from the land into the drainage, for it will be seen that the drainage from Plot 16 contained 21*41 grains of solid matter per gallon, whereas the drainage-water from the continuously unmanured Plots contained only 16' 65 grains. On comparing the relative amounts of solid constituents in the drainage from Plots 5, 6, 7, and 8, it will be seen that rain falling upon land which has been manured with mineral manures only, dissolves less mineral matter than from land upon which both mineral and ammoniacal fertilizing inatters have been used. Thus the drainage from Plot 5, manured with superphosphate and sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia, and without am- moniacal salts, contained 20'25 grains of solid matter per gallon, whilst the samples from the adjoining Plots 6, 7, and 8, treated like Plot 5 as regards mineral manures, with the addition of 200 lbs., 400 lbs., and 600 lbs. of ammonia-salts respectively, yielded 23*15 grains, 25*10 and 31*35 grains of soluble matter, the largest dressing of ammonia-salts causing the largest amount of mineral matters to appear in the drainage. The solvent action of ammonia-salts upon the mineral con- stituents of the soil is likewise clearly traceable on Plots 11, 12, 13, and 14. On Plot 5, which had been manured from year to year with mineral fertilizing matters without aminonia, the drainage con- tained 20*25 grains of solid constituents, composed almost entirely of mineral matter. The addition of ammonia-salts to the mineral manures used on Plots 11, 12, 13, and 14, had the effect of largely increasing the total amount of mineral constituents in the drainage from them. At the same time it will be seen that ammonia-salts in a great measure cease to abstract soluble mineral matters from the land when they are applied to it for a great number of years. Thus the drainage from Plot 10, dressed every year with 400 lbs. 144 On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainafje. Table II. — Second Series. Drainag®^ Composition of Drainage-Water from Plots Broadbalk Field, Eothamsted ; Wheat Manures stated in Quantities per Acre ; ConstituentB I Per Gallon. Unmanured every Year. supkri'hosphate akd sulphate of potash, soda, akd Magnesia. Without Ammo- niacal-salts. And 200 lbs. Ammo- nia-salts (41 lbs. Nitrogen). •'And 400 lbs. Ammo- nia-salts (82 lbs. Nitrogen). I And 600 \ lbs. Ammo- I nia-salts (123 lbs. Nitrogen). And 550 lbs. Nitrate of Snda (82 lbs. Nitrogen). Plots 3 6k 4, Plots. Plots. Plot 7. Plot 8. Plot 9. Organic matter Oxide of iron Phosplioric acid Lime Magnesia Potash Soda Chlorine Sulphuric acid Nitric acid Carbonic acid Soluble silica Total residue per gallon\ (dried at 260° rahr.)../ 45 153 047 50 39 3^ 42 61 14 83 60 •35 ' 65 •375 247 •025 153 •62 9 66 •32 39 •38 28 •86 1 10 •54 82 •26 2 68 •16 24 85 ■ 1 6 44 •51 1 49 •99 •45 10^24 •50 •40 •88 •98 3^25 •21 6^65 •55 1-20 • •29 3^02 8^ •48 •19 101 3^ 1^16 4-43 !• •74 1- 8^38 8- •45 16-65 20-25 23-15 25^10 31^35 27^01 By uniting the acid with the basic constituents into the saline compounds which may be An imperial gallon contains Chloride of sodium . . Carbonate of soda Chloride of potassium Carbonate of potash .. Nitrate of lime . , Nitrate of soda . . Sulphate of lime Carbonate of lime Chloride of calcium . . Oxide of iron [ Phosphoric acid . . Carbonate of magnesia Soluble silica Organic matter and differ m 25 21 04 50 153 047 82 60 37 16-65 89 20 55 24 84 43 375 025 67 51 52 20-25 35 66 41 36 55 68 247 153 54 49 71 23-15 1-61 25-10 1-91 -28 1-12 7-53 17-04 -29 •91 •45 1-82 31-35 •87 3-64 •22 3-33 2-77 13-25 -30 1-09 •45 1-09 27-01 On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainage. 145 Waters collected May 21st, 1867. JIl lERENTLY MANURED, COLLECTED MaY 21sT, 1807. 3veiy year, commencing 1844. n Drainage-Waters in Grains per Gallon. Mineral 400 lbs. Ammonia-s.vlts (82 bs. NrraoGRN )• INIanure, and 800 lb?. Ammonia- With Superphos- phate of Lime. With With With salts, Per Gallon-. Without Superphos- Superphos- Superphos- 1852-1864. Mineral phate and phate and 1 pliate and Unmanured Manure. Sulphate of Sulphate of Sulphate of 1865, and Soda. Potash. JIagnesia. since. Plot 10. Plot 11. Plot 12. Plot 13. Plot 14. Plot 16. Organic matter. 1-65 2^10 •75 1-27 1-35 •CI •29 •31 •40 •41 •30 •31 Oxide of iron. Phosphoric acid. 8^87 11-36 11-48 14^16 14-22 10-33 Lime. •49 •59 •50 •51 •64 •43 Magnesia. •27 •08 •14 -24 •16 •04 Potash. •m •63 1-60 •53 -47 •12 Soda. 1^21 •95 •92 1^08 1-09 •42 Clilorine. 1^92 2^74 4-32 413 4^31 1-06 Sulphuric acid. •11 •14 •29 •25 •32 •28 Nitric acid. 564 7^49 8-95 8-78 9-53 7-21 Carbonic acid. •60 •51 •60 •69 •21 •60 Soluble silica. / Total residue per ( (dried at 260^ Fal 21^91 26-90 29-95 32-05 32^60 21-41 gallon ir.) assumed to occur in the waters, their composition may be represented as follows : 1-GO •42 •17 3- -20 13-34 •29 1-03 •60 1-20 21-91 1-17 •13 •21 4-66 16-48 -28 •31 1-24 •51 1-91 26-90 14 29-95 •86 •38 •37 602 19-30 •67 •41 1^07 •69 2-28 32-05 •89 25 49 33 09 67 30 34 21 03 32-60 •23 06 42 SO 53 39 31 90 60 17 21-41 An imperial gallon contains: — Chloride of sodium. Carbonate of soda. Chloride of potassium. Carbonate of potash . Nitrate of lime. Nitrate of soda. Sulphate of lime. Carbonate of lime. Chloride of calcium. Oxide of iron. Phosphoric acid. Carbonate of magnesia. Soluble silica. ( Organic matter and dift'er- I ence. VOL. X, — S. S. 14G On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainaf/e. of ammonia-salts alone, contained much less solid matter per <2:allon than that from the adjoining^ plots, which received saline mineral inanures in addition to the ammoniacal dressing. 2. The drainage from all the Plots contained less solid matter than the samples collected in December of the preceding year. This appears to indicate that at a period of the year when vege- tation makes a vigorous start, the scduble saline soil constituents are taken up In' the plant and utilized in promoting its groAvth ; whilst at a time of the year when vegetr^tion is at a standstill the soluble constituents pass more copiously into the drains. o. With the exception of the drainage from Plot 1), where nitrate of soda was used, all the other samples collected in May, 1867, contained only minute quantities of nitric acid, whilst all the samples collected in December of the preceding year con- tained more nitric acid, and some of them in considerable quantity. It would appear, therefore, that during the active growth of Avheat, nitric acid, which is applied to the land in the shape of nitrate of soda, or which is gradually produced by oxydation of ammoniacal top-dressings, is consumed by the wheat-crop in considerable quantities, and employed, together with the needful soluljle mineral constituents of the soil, in the development of the plant. 4. In the December drainage-waters, the proportion of nitric acid was largest in the samples from those plots upon which the largest quantities of ammonia-salts were used, whilst the drainage from Plot 9, dressed in spring with 550 lbs. of nitrate of soda, contained scarcely more nitric acid than that from the unmanured portions of the same field. In the drainage from Plot 9 collected in May, on the other hand, the amount of nitric acid was con- siderable, being from 10 to 15 times as great as that in the drainage from most of the Plots manured with ammonia-salts. On Plot 9 it thus appears that there was more nitrate of soda at the command of the crop than it could utilize, and con- sequently an appreciable quantity passed into the drains ; whilst in the case of the plots dressed with ammonia-salts not much more nitric acid was produced at the time by oxydation from the ammonia-salts than could be at once consumed and utilized by the growing crop. The differences in the relative proportions of nitric acid in the December and the iVIay drainages, from the plots manured with nitrate of soda and ammonia-salts respectively, are very instructive, and full of practical interest. The small quantities of nitric acid, or rather nitrates, in the drainage from land highly manured in spring with ammonia-salts, and the much larger amount in the drainage from land top-dressed with nitrate On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainage. 147 of soda, explain in a . The proportion of lime in the different samples varied considerably. Whilst the drainage from the unmanurcd Plots, 3 and 4, contained only 7 '14 grains of lime, that from some of the manured plots contained from 16 to 19 grains. With an increasing proportion of nitric acid in the drainage that of lime also increased, showing that nitric acid passed off as nitrate of lime. 7. More magnesia was found in the water from the plots to which sulphate of magnesia had been applied than where no magnesia-salts were employed as manuring agents. 150 On the Comjyosition of Waters of Land-Drainafje. Table III. — Third Seeies. Drainage- Composition OF Drainage-Water from Plots Broakbalk Field, Rothamsted ; Wheat Manures stated in Quantities per Acre ; Constituents SUPERPHOSPHATK AKD SuLPHATE OF POTASH, SODA, ANI> Farmyard Unmanured Magnesia. 1 X*er Gallon. Manure. everj' Yeai". Without And 200 And 400 And 600 And 550 . ! 1 Ammo- niacal- salts. lbs. Ammo- lbs. Ammo- lbs. Ammo- lbs. Nitrate ■ nia-salts nia-salts nia-salts of Soda 1 \ ' (41 lbs. (82 lbs. (123 lbs. (82 lbs. : Nitrogen). Nitrogen). Nitrogen). Nitrogen). ■ Plot 2. Plots 3 & 4. Plots, Plot 6. Plot 7. Plot 8. Plot 9. 1 Organic matter 2-25 1-95 1-60 1-65 2-60 4^05 1-20 <_)xide of iron .. ..\ "21 i Phosphoric acid . . j j •35 •15 •15 •25 •30 -35 .. .. .. Lime 9-57 1 7-14 io^6i ; 12-57 16-49 17 -31 7-61 1 IMagiiesia ■36 • •32 •46 •64 •54 •56 -27 Potasli •38 •17 •72 •60 •13 •27 •12 Soda •96 •41 ro4 ' •72 1^06 1^01 2^94 Chlorine 1-53 1-02 1-17 2-56 1-97 4-38 1^31 Sulphuric acid . . . . 6 • 62 1-75 7-76 8-37 9-21 8-35 3-98 Nitric acid .. .. 3-39 1^80 2-50 4-60 7-59 8-38 3-23 Soluble silica . . . . ; "60 •30 •45 "55 •20 -70 •60 Carbonic acid .. Total solid matter 303 2^90 1^89 4-32 4^51 5-14 3-24 ■ per R-allon (dried v 28-90 18-11 28^35 36^75 44^55 50-45 24-85 at2(J0°rahr.) .. Ammonia •0045 •0125 •0136 •014 •0056 •0056 •0128' Combining tlie acid with the ba sic constit uents the compositic 1 )n of the several wate rs may be Chloride of sodium rso -76 1-95 1^35 1-98 1^91 2-16 Nitrate of soda .. " .. i 4-93 Chloride of po-1 •61 •32 •95 •21 •42 tassium . . ..] Carbonate of potash 1-13 Cliloride of calcium •23 •59 2-02 r'64 4 -'72 Nitrate of lime . . 5-15 2-73 3-80 0-99 11-52 12-73 Sulphate of lime ., 11-25 2-97 13-19 14-23 ' 15-66 14-19 6 '77 Carbonate of lime i 5-48 8-41 6-93 6-41 9-98 8-46 8-61 .. ,. .. .. •26 Carbonate of mag-' nesia j ' -76 •67 -97 134 1-13 1-18 Nitrate of magnesia .. .. •• •96 •35 •15 •15 •25 •30 •35 Phosphoric acid . . ■• 1 •30 •45 -'55 •20 •70 •60 { contained 5*10 grains of soluble silica, and that from Plot 13, 5 '20 grains. Both samples were perfectly clear, they having been filtered through fine filtering-paper before they were submitted to analysis. Moreover, in both samples the proportion of soluble silica was determined twice with closely agreeing results, as I feared some mistake might have occurred in the first determi- nation. There is, therefore, no doubt about the correctness oi' the silica determination, but I am at a loss to understand why some of the drainage-waters contained but little soluble silica and others, comparatively speaking, a large amount. 8. With the exception of the drainage from Plot 0, all the samples contained comparatively little nitric acid. On the whole, however, there was more nitric acid present in the April collections than in the samples collected in May 1867. 9. Particular attention is directed to the large proportion of nitric acid in the drainage from Plot 9, which was manured in spring with 550 lbs. of nitrate of soda. 154 On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainofje. Table IV. — Fourth Series. Drainage-' Composition of Drainage-Water from Plots; Broadbalk Field, Rothamsted ; Wheat; Manures stated in Quantities per Acre ; Constituents; SOPEBrHOSPHATB AND SUUHATE OP POTASH, SODA, AND MaGXESIA. Per Gallon. Unmanurcd every Year. \ ^^j^j^^^^ Ammomac;il- , j salts. j And 200 lbs. Ammonia- salts (■II lbs. Nitrogen). And 400 lbs. Ammonia- salts (82 lbs. Nitrogen). And 600 lbs. Ammonia- salts (123 lbs. Nitrogen). A,nd 550 lbs. N itrate of Soda (*-2 lbs. Nitrogen). Flots3&4. Orjxanic matter Oxide of iron . . Pliosphoric acid Lime Magnesia .. Potash *Soda Chlorine . . Sulphm-ic acid . . Nitric acid Carbonic acid . . Soluble silica .. Plot 6. Plot 6. Plot 7. Plot 8. Plot 9. 50 1-45 25 •30 01 •102 90 6-66 47 •46 07 •20 67 •78 58 •65 79 2^62 23 •37 24 3^91 35 1^35 •40 •20 •063 •04 •54 •21 •75 •73 •43 •51 •83 •10 60 2^90 45 •15 064 •012 01 7^16 56 1^06 18 •13 49 •31 16 1-38 33 4^09 21 1^63 80 3^38 80 4-60 10 •01 •35 75 69 43 57 02 67 74 77 85 Total solid residue! per gallon (dried > at 260'" Fahr.) ..) Ammonia .. 14^15 18-852 22^803 23 • 654 26-802 47 '85 faint trace none traces •007 According to the precec ling analy ;ical data, t lie composi ion of the c lifferent drai nage-waters Chloride of sodium •95 1^07 1-20 •92 •58 1-68 Carbonate of soda •29 •37 •20 .. .. Chloride of po-l tassium .. ..] ,. .. .. •29 •21 •• Carbonate of potash •10 •29 •31 Sulphate of lime . . 1^34 4^45 4^13 5-66 6-95 2-84 I'hloride of calcium ,, .. -92 1-41 Nitrate of lime .. •.35 •51 •77 1-84 2-48 5-33 Nitrate of potash . . -• •90 ■<_!arbonate of lime 9-44 8^28 7-28 8-37 4-89 13-86 Nitrate of soda . . .. .. , , 15-48 Carbonate of mag-"l nesia j •99 •97 1^13 1^18 2^23 Nitrate of magnesia ^^ , . 2-55 Phosphoric acid .. •04 •102 •063 •064 •012 \ •15- / •35 Oxide of iron •25 •30 •20 •45 Soluble silica •35 1-35 5^10 2-80 4^C0 •85 Organic matter and 1 dift'erence .. ../ •05 1-16 2^42 1-16 3^29 401 14^15 18-8.52 22^803 23^654 26^802 47-85 On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainage. 155 V^ATKIIS COLLECTED ApRIL 21sT, 1868. [FlKliEXTLY MANURED, COLLECTED ApRIL 21sT, 1868. rery year, commencing 1844. I Draiuage-Waters iu Grains jjer Gallon. Mineral 400 lbs. Ajimoxia-salts (82 bs. of Nitrogen). Bone-ash, Manure, Muriatic- Acid, and 1800 lbs. Ammonia- Without With Super- With Superphos- With Superphos- With Superphos- Sulphate of salts, 1852-1861. Pee Gallon'. Mineral phosphate phate and phate and phate and Ammonia. Unmanured Manure. of Sulphate of Sulphate of Sulphate of 1865, and Lime. Soda. Potash. Magnesia. since. Plot 10. Plot 11. Plot 12. Plot 13. Plot 11 Plot 15. Plot 16. 3-10 2^20 2^20 3^45 5^10 2^S0 2-15 Organic matter. •25 •25 •20 •15 •35 •30 •30 Oxide of iron. •0(J3 •051 •025 •051 •051 •075 •038 Phosphoric acid. 7-78 8-20 9-68 7-02 11-01 10^22 7-18 Lime. •52 •46 •50 1-11 •70 •47 •39 Magnesia. •06 •10 •20 •13 •10 •22 •29 Potash. •41 •28 1^18 •30 •37 •71 •60 Soda. 1-24 1^24 •51 1-46 1^60 •87 1^02 . Chlorine. 2-71 2-69 2-78 3^70 4^67 5^67 1^85 y- Sulphuric acid. 2-74 2^06 •47 1^52 1-82 2^05 1^59 Nitric acid. 3-18 2-57 7^56 3-66 3-23 3-87 3^01 Carbonic acid. •GO •80 1^60 5^20 •65 •65 •25 Soluble silica. 1 Total solid residue 22 •653 20^901 26^905 27^751 29^651 27^905 18 •668 1 per gallon <" dried ( at 260^ Fahr.). •008 none •043 •on none none •005 Ammonia. may be i epresente 1 as foUows i-.— •76 ♦96 •59 ( Sulphate 1 I of soda. \ •58 •68 1-17 •15 1^14 Chloride of sodium. Carbonate of soda. •09 •15 •32 •21 •15 •34 •46 ( Chloride of po- \ tassium. Carbonate of pot i.sh. 4'(;i 3*57 2*44 6-29 7*94 9-64 3-14 Sulphate of lime. 1-16 •65 1^57 r75 •17 Chloride of calcium. 4-34 3-13 •71 2-31 2^76 3-12 2-41 Nitrate of lime. Nitrate of potash. 6-59 9*16 15'il 5-ii 10*57 9-*25 8-*78 Carbonate of lime. Nitrate of soda. 1-09 •96 105 2-33 1-47 •99 •82 ( Carbonate of mig- \ nesia. .. .. ,. ., Nitrate of magnesia. •663 •051 •025 •051 •651 •075 •638 Phosphoric acid. •25 •25 •20 •15 •35 •30 •30 Oxide of iron. •60 •80 i-m 5-30 •65 •65 •25 Soluble silica. 310 1-221 2-81 3-85 3-28 2-22 116 ( Organic matter.-^ and \ difference. 22-653 20 •901 26^905 27-751 29^651 27-905 18-668 156 On the Composition of Waters of Lmtd-Drainage. This sample it will be seen contained no less than 15*74 grains of nitric acid per gallon. It will further be noticed that the nitric acid passed into the drains partly in combination with soda, and partly with lime, magnesia, and potash. Tlie combined results of the analysis of the water from Plot 9 show that there was in a gallon 15"48 grains of nitrate of soda, *yO nitrate of potash, 2*55 grains of nitrate of magnesia, and 5-33 grains of nitrate of lime. In percolating through the soil, nitrate of soda, it appears, suffers decomposition, and gives rise to several compounds of nitric acid with bases ; and it passes off not simply as nitrate of soda, for the amount of soda which was found in the drainage was not sufficient to bind the nitric acid, a. portion of which entered in union with other bases, and passed into the drains as nitrate of lime and magnesia. We learn from these experiments that in a wet spring the loss of nitrogen by drainage is unquestionably very great when the wheat crop is top-dressed with nitrate of soda ; and that the loss of nitrogen in wet seasons is much more considerable in the case of nitrate of soda than when ammoniacal salts are employed as top-dressings for wheat. Fifth Seeies of Deainage-Water Analyses. The last series of analyses was made with samples collected December 29, 1869, at Rothamsted, at an enormous flow of the drains. In October there was a deficiency of rain, and in November hardly any rain fell. In December, on the other hand, we had a very great excess of rainfall. Notwithstanding the heavy and continuous rains which fell in December, and which caused the pipe-drains from all the other drains to run freely, little or no water passed through the drain- pipe from the plot usually manured with farmyard-manure, and consequently no analysis of the drainage from that plot could be made in December 1869. Dr. Gilbert informs me that whilst the pipe-drains from every one of the other plots in the experi- mental wheat-field run freely, perhaps four or five times or more annually, the drain from the dunged plot seldom runs at all more than once a year, and in some seasons not at all. The fact is the vast accumulation of decomposing organic matter on the plot, annually dunged at the rate of 14 tons of farmyard-manure per acre, lightens the soil and promotes the disintegration of the clayey portions, and altogether renders the surface-soil more porous, and capable of retaining much more water. Hence a much greater amount and continuity of rain is required before the porous surface is fully charged with rain, and an excess can reach the drains. On the Composition of Waters of Latid-Drainat/c. 157 This result is interesting' and important, for it illustrates in a striking manner the beneficial effects ot farmyanl-inanure on the soil in ameliorating its texture, and, generally speaking, its mechanical or physical condition, in consequence of which the growing crops will suffer less during seasons of drought. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have found that the dunged soil, when saturated, retained within 12 inches of the surface, an excess of water which would be equivalent to about 1^ inch of rain more than that held to the same depth on the unmanured and the artificially manured plots in the same field, which fully explains the circumstance that during the five collections of drainage- waters, samples from the dunged plot could be obtained onlv on two occasions. The thirteen samples collected by Dr. Gilbert on 29tli Decem- ber were submitted to full analvses as before. No ammonia deter- minations, however, were inade, as the qualitative examinations showed mere traces of ammonia in all the samples, and numerous determinations have been given in previous samples. The results of the analyses are given in detail in Table V. (pp. 158, 159). 1. It will be seen that the total amount of solid matter was almost precisely the same in the drainage from the continuously unmanured Plots 3 and 4, and from Plot IG, which was highlv manured previous to 18G5, but was left unmanured in that year and since. In both cases the amount of solid matter was l(j grains in round numbers. In the drainage from the other plots the solid matter varied with the kinds of artificial manures emplojed, and ranged from 19'80 to o7"45 grains per gallon. 2. The unmanured plots furnished drainage which contained appreciable quantities of nitric acid, which, no doubt, owes its origin to the decomposition and gradual oxydation of the vege- table remains left on the land by the previous wheat crop. 3. Nitrate of soda was applied as a top-dressing on Plot 9 in the middle of March, and as the drainage-water from that plot contained in December scarcely more nitric acid than the unmanured Plots 3 and 4, it may be presumed that any excess not consumed by the wheat crop was completely washed into the drains by the autumn and winter rains. 4. In the wheat experiments the ammonia-salts, on the con- trary, were always sown broadcast in the autumn, and ploughed or harrowed in before sowing the seed ; and it will be seen that the amount of nitric acid in the drainage-water was much greater on the three occasions of winter collection, soon after the am- moniacal-salts were sown, and when there was no growth, than on either of the two occasions of spring collection, when active growth had set in and the winter rains had, no doubt, removed a s:ood deal of nitric acid into the drains. 158 On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainage, Table V. — Fifth Sekies. DeainageJ Composition of Dbainage-Watek from Plot& Broadbalk Field, Eothamsted ; Wheat Manures stated in Quantities per Acre ; Constituents Unmannred Sul'Elil'IlOSPlIATE AXD SULFHATE OF POTASH, SODA OF Magxesia. - rKK Gallon. every And 200 lbs. And 400 lbs. And 600 lbs. And 550 lbs. Year. AVithout Ammonia- Ammonia- Ammonia- Nitrate of i. Animo- salts salts salts Soda niacal-salts. (41 lbs. (S2 lbs. (123 lbs. (82 lbs. ;: Kitrogen). Nitrogen). | Nitrogen). Nitrogen). Plots 3 &4. Plot 5. Plot 6. Plot 7. Plot 8. Plot 9. • Organic matter .. \ 2-85 1-55 1-95 2-75 3-20 1-60 Oxide of iron .. .. i Phosphoric acid . . / •85 •35 •15 •20 none •50 Lime 5-15 7-22 8-62 11-17 12 88 5-04 Magnesia \ •27 •63 -45 •46 19 •14 Potash •09 •20 •15 •10 17 •45 Soda •25 •59 •44 •59 64 2^42 Chlorine •58 •58 1-46 2-48 3 29 -58 Sulphuric acid . . ]^57 4-25 4-67 5-94 6 01 2-92 Nitric acid I'OO 1-43 .2-57 4-03 5 06 1-78 Carbonic acid . . l-'i9 2-20 1-94 2-28 2 71 3-27 Soluble silica . . 1-75 •80 -45 •40 •45 •55 16-20 19^80 22-85 30-40 34-60 19-25 Combining the acid wi th the bas ic constituei its, the composition of 1 he precedinc ; samples of Chloride of sodium •43 •95 •84 1-12 1-19 -96 Carbonate of soda •15 ., ., 1-52 Chloride of po-i tassium .. ..\ •13 .. ■19 •15 •27 ., Carbonate of potash •31 .. .. •66 Chloride of calcium •35 ., 1-34 2-70 3-61 .. Nitrate of soda .. .. .. 2-*80 Sulphate of lime .. 2*67 7-22 7-94 10-10 10-22 4-96 Nitrate of lime 2-05 2-17 3-90 6-12 7-68 Carbonate of lime 5-61 6-27 5-98 6-36 7-37 5-36 Carbonate of mag-1 nesia .. .. ) -57 1-32 •94 •97 •40 •29 Oxide of iron and^ phosphoric acid / •85 •35 •15 •20 .. •50 Soluble silica 1-75 2-20 •45 •40 •45 -55 Organic matter and 1-79 •• ; 1-12 2-28 3-41 1-65 16-20 20-94 22-85 30-40 34-60 19-25 Oil tlie Comj)osition of Watera of Land-Drainage. 159 'atkrs collected December 29th, 1869. 1 IKIiEXTLY 3IAXURI:L), COLLECTED DECEMBER 29tH, 1S69. cry year, commencing 1844. Drainage-Waters in Grains per Gallon. •100 lbs. A5IMOSIA-S.U,T3 (82 lbs. of Nitkogen). Mineral Manure, Bone-ash, Muriatic- Acid, and Sulph&te of Ammonia. and 800 lbs. Without Mineral Manure. AVith Super- pliosph.ite of Lime. With Superphos- phate and Sulphate of Soda. AVith < Superphos- phate and Sulphate of Potash. With Superphos- phate and Sulphate of Magnesia. Ammonia- salts, 1852-1864. Unmanured 1865, and since. Plot 10. Plot 11. Plot 12. Plot 13. Plot 14, Plot 15. Plot 16. 2-15 3^70 l^SO 2 Qo 4-25 3-70 1-05 •30 •20 •15 10 none •15 •10 9-57 9-94 11 62 11 87 13^94 12-82 0^38 •37 •39 •38 32 -.50 •30 •20 •03 •04 •14 13 •01 •23 •09 •19 •29 1-68 34 •14 102 •42 2-48 2-41 2-48 2 70 3-29 1^73 •79 2-91 3^69 7^10 5 56 6-83 8^34 1-27 5-29 4^63 4-44 4 78 5-52 5^01 1^49 2^61 •35 •35 20 -20 •45 •20 •25 2^01 3^36 3 '05 3-17 3^70 3^71 26-15 27 •05 33^50 31-70 .37-85 37-45 16 •SO drainage -water ma y be repre. sented as fo Hows :— •30 •53 315 -03 •25 1-91 •79 •05 •06 •23 •20 •02 -36 •15 3-49 3-22 J •72 3 -'48 4 -'89 •62 •37 4-95 0-27 12-07 9-45 11-61 14-18 216 8-03 7-03 1 6-94 7-26 8-38 7^61 2^26 0-41 5 •OS 712 6-69 6-86 7-28 8^11 •78 •82 •80 •67 ; 1-05 •63 •42 •30 •20 •15 •10 .. •13 •10 •25 2^01 3^36 3^05 ' 3-17 3^70 3-71 2-53 1^55 •17 1-62 ! 1 1-01 26-15 27^05 34 - 54 31- 70 37-85 37-45 18-07 1 Peu Gallox. Organic matter, ( Oxide of iron. \ Phosijhoric acid. Lime. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Chlorine. Sulphuric acid. Nitric acid. Carbonic acid. Soluble silica. Chloride of sodium. Carbonate of soda. Chloride of po- tassium. Carbonate of potash. Cbloride of calcium. Nitrate of soda. Sulphate of lime. Nitrate of lime. Carbonate of lime. Carbonate of mag- nesia. Oxide of iron and phosphoric acid. Soluble silica. Organic matter and diti'erence. I 160 On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainacje. Table VI. — Drainagi -Wateb ' Broadealk Field, Eothamsted ; Wheat Nitrogen as Nitrates and Nitrites ' Farmyard Manure every Year. Unmamired every Year. SrrERPHOsruATE and Sui.viiate of Potash, Soda, akd Magnesia. AVithout Ammonia-: salts. And 200 lbs. Ammo- nia-salts (41 lbs. Nitrogen). And 400 lbs. Ammo- nia-salts (82 lbs. Nitrogen). And 600 lbs. Ammo- nia-salts (123 lbs. Nitrogen). And 550 lbs. .Nitrate of Soda (82 lbs. N itrogen). Plot 2. Plots 3 & 4. Plot 5. Plot 6. Plot 7. Plots. Plot 9. '] Dec. C, 1866, full flow 1-056 0-648 0-878 1-330 2-170 2-567 0-707 May 21, 1867, full flow- •• 0-052 0-059 0-089 0-078 : 0-274 0-785 Jan. 13, 1868, full flow 1-256 0-667 0-926 1-704 2-811 3-104 1-196 Apr. 21, 1868, full flow. 0-085 0-137 0-189 0-448 0-578 5-830 Dec. 29, 1S6S, enor- mous flow Means } •• 0-500 0-530 ■ 0-952 1 1-493 1-874 0-659 1-60G 0-390 0-506 0-853 1-400 1-679 1-835 SUMMAEY. Plot 2. , ^^°*^ 3' *' ^' Farmyard ^.nd 16. Manure. >'« Nitrogen in Manure. Dec. 6, 1806, full flow .. .. May 21, 1867, full flow .. .. Jan, 13,1868, full flow .. .. Apr. 21, 1868, full flow .. .. Dec. 29, 1868, enormous flow.. Means 1-956 1-256 1G06 -809 -072 •751 -270 -527 0-486 Plot 6. 41 lbs. of Nitrogen as Ammonia. 1-330 0-089 1-704 0-189 0-952 0-853 On the Comiwsition of IVatcrs of Land-Drainage. 161 iOM Plots differently Manured. ^ERY Year, commexcixg 1844. T 100,000 parts of Water. 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts (82 lbs. of Xitkogex). Mineral Manure, and SOO lbs. Ammonia- salts, lS52-lS6i. Unmanured 1865-1871. Meaks. i Without Mineral Manure. AVith .Super- phosphate of Lime. AVith Super- phosphate and Sulphate of Suda. AVnth Super- phosphate and Sulphate of Pot;ish. With Super- phosphate and Sulphat?of Magnesia. ' Plot 10. Plot 11. Plot 12. Plot 13. Plot 14. Plot 16. 2 • 2G3 2-615 2-796 9-289 0-900 1-818 Dec. 0, 1866, full flow. 0-041 0-052 0-107 0-093 0-119 0-104 0-154 May 21, 1867, full flow. 2-533 2-878 3-011 3-504 3-774 0-659 2-156 Jan. 13, 1868, full flow. 1-015 0-7G3 0-174 0-563 0-674 0-589 0-9-20 Apr. 21, 1868, full flow. 1-959 1-715 1-644 1-770 2 044 0-552 1-308: Dec. 29, 1868, enor- mous flow. 1-387 1-534 1-510 1-745 1-920 0-561 1-302 Means. SUMMAEY. 1- Plots 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14. Plot 9. ,-+ lbs. of ?2 lbs. Nitrogen Nitrogen as =is Nitric Acid. Ammonia. Plot 8. ] 23 lbs. of Nitrogen as Ammonia. 2-567 0-082 i 3-085 0-606 1-771 0-707 0-785 1-196 5-830 0-659 2-567 0-274 3-104 0-578 1-874 Dec. 6, 1866, full flow. May 21, 1867, full flow. Jan. 13, 1868, full flow. Apr, 21, 1868, full flow. Dec. 29, 1868, enormous flow. 1-G22 1-835 1-679 Means. VOL. X. — S. S. M 162 On the Composition of Waters of Land-Drainage. 5. In accordance with previous experience, more nitric acid was found in the drainage-water from the plots to which the larger quantities of ammonia-salts had been applied than in that from the plots on which smaller quantities had been used. Other particulars which will be noticed in the composition of the drainage-waters of this last series fully confirm the statements already made. The quantity of water which passes through the drains in the course of the year, as may be readily conceived, varies a great deal in different soils, according to the distribution of the rain in the year, and the quantity which falls at one period. The researches of Maurice of Geneva, Gasparin at Orange, Dalton in Manchester, Dickinson in Hertfordshire, and, more recently, by Mr. Risler of Geneva and by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, who have all endeavoured to determine the relative quantity of the rainfall which escapes into the air by surface-evaporation, and that which passes through the land into tjie drains, do not supply ■data from which an average estimate can be made. In the ab- sence of satisfactory evidence, from which might be calculated the probable amount of water which passed annually through the drains of the different plots of the Experimental Wheat Field at Rothamsted, it is impossible to determine precisely the actual loss of fertilizing matter which the several plots sustained by drainage. It has been shown that the amount of nitrogen which passes into the drains, in the form of nitrates, is considerable when the land had been manured with ammonia-salts or with nitrate of soda. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, in a long series of experiments on the continuous growth of wheat on the same land, and on barley and meadow hay, have invariably experienced a great loss of nitrogen, which could not be accounted for satisfactorily ; and it will be necessary to weigh the actual quantities of water which pass through the soil of a definite area, and to determine the composition of the whole of the drainage, before it can be ascer- tained how much of the nitrogen, which is not recovered in the produce, nor accumulates in the soil, passes away with the drainage-waters. In order to afford a ready comparison of the preceding nitric acid determina